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* [[Battle of Waterloo]] (18 June 1815)
* [[Battle of Waterloo]] (18 June 1815)
}}
}}
| date = {{start and end dates|1689|5|18|1815|11|20|df=yes}}<br/>({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=05|day1=18|year1=1689|month2=11|day2=20|year2=1815}})
| date = {{start and end dates|1689|5|18|1815|11|20|df=yes}}<br />({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=05|day1=18|year1=1689|month2=11|day2=20|year2=1815}})
| place = [[Europe]], [[Atlantic]], [[Africa]], the [[Americas]], [[Indian subcontinent]] & [[Indian Ocean|ocean]]
| place = [[Europe]], [[Atlantic]], [[Africa]], the [[Americas]], [[Indian subcontinent]] & [[Indian Ocean|ocean]]
| coordinates =
| coordinates =
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| map_caption =
| map_caption =
| map_label =
| map_label =
| territory = Great Britain annexes [[Canada]], [[French India]], [[Malta]], [[Ionian islands]], [[St. Vincent & the Grenadines|St Vincent]], [[Dominica]], [[St. Lucia]], [[Tobago]], [[Mauritius]] and [[Seychelles]] from France
| territory = Britain annexes [[Canada]], [[French India]], [[Malta]], [[Ionian islands]], [[St. Vincent & the Grenadines|St Vincent]], [[Dominica]], [[St. Lucia]], [[Tobago]], [[Mauritius]] and [[Seychelles]] from France
| result = British victory
| result = British victory
| status =
| status =
| combatants_header =
| combatants_header =
| combatant1 = [[Great Britain]]
| combatant1 = [[British Empire|Great Britain]]
| combatant2 = [[France]]
| combatant2 = [[France]]
| commander1 = {{Plainlist|
| commander1 = {{Plainlist|
* {{flagicon|Dutch Republic}}{{flagicon|Kingdom of England}}{{flagicon|Kingdom of Scotland}} [[William III of England|William III]]
* [[William III of England|William III]]
* {{flagicon|Kingdom of England}}{{flagicon|Kingdom of Scotland}} [[Mary II of England|Mary II]]
* [[Mary II of England|Mary II]]
* {{flagicon|Kingdom of Great Britain}} [[Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Anne]]
* [[Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Anne]]
* {{flagicon|Kingdom of Great Britain}} [[George II of Great Britain|George II]]
* [[George II of Great Britain|George II]]
* {{flagicon|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}} [[George III]]
* [[George III]]
}}
}}
| commander2 = {{Plainlist|
| commander2 = {{Plainlist|
* {{flagicon|Kingdom of France}} [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]]
* [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]]
* {{flagicon|Kingdom of France}} [[Louis XV of France|Louis XV]]
* [[Louis XV of France|Louis XV]]
* {{flagicon|Kingdom of France}} [[Louis XVI]]
* [[Louis XVI]]
* {{flagicon|First French Empire}} [[Napoleon]]
* [[Napoleon]]
}}
}}
| units1 =
| units1 =
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}}
}}


The '''Second Hundred Years' War''' is a [[periodization]] or historical era term used by some [[historian]]s<ref>Buffinton, Arthur H. ''"The Second Hundred Years' War, 1689–1815"''. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1929.
The '''Second Hundred Years' War''' is a [[periodization]] or historical era term used by some [[historian]]s<ref>Buffinton, Arthur H. [https://archive.org/details/secondhundredyea0000buff ''The "Second Hundred Years War", 1689–1815''] {{registration required}}. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1929.</ref><ref>[[François Crouzet|Crouzet, François]] (December 1996). [https://academic.oup.com/fh/article-abstract/10/4/432/512601 "The Second Hundred Years War: Some Reflections"] {{Subscription required}}. ''French History''. Volume 10, Issue 4. pp. 432–450. {{doi|10.1093/fh/10.4.432}}.</ref><ref>Scott, H. M. (June 1992). "Review: ''The Second 'Hundred Years War' 1689–1815''{{-"}}, ''The Historical Journal'', Vol. 35, No. 2, pp. 443–469. {{JSTOR|2639677}}.
⚫
</ref> to describe the series of [[military conflict]]s [[World war|around the globe]] between [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] and [[France]] that occurred from about 1689 (or some say 1714) to 1815, including several separate wars such as the [[War of the Spanish Succession]], [[War of the Austrian Succession]], [[Seven Years' War]], [[American Revolutionary War]] and the [[Napoleonic Wars]]. The Second Hundred Years' War is named after the [[Hundred Years' War]], which occurred in the 14th and 15th century. The term appears to have been coined by [[John Robert Seeley|J. R. Seeley]] in his influential work ''[[The Expansion of England]]'' (1883).<ref>Morieux, Renaud (February 2009). "Diplomacy from Below and Belonging: Fishermen and Cross-Channel Relations in the Eighteenth Century". ''Past & Present''. 202, p. 83. {{JSTOR|25580920}}.</ref>
</ref><ref>[[François Crouzet|Crouzet, François]]. "The Second Hundred Years War: Some Reflections", article in ''"French History"'', 10. (1996), pp. 432–450.
</ref><ref>Scott, H. M. Review: ''"The Second 'Hundred Years War"'' 1689–1815", article in ''"The Historical Journal"'', 35, (1992), pp. 443–469.
⚫
</ref> to describe the series of [[military conflict]]s between [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] and [[France]] that occurred from about 1689 (or some say 1714) to 1815. The Second Hundred Years' War is named after the [[Hundred Years' War]], which occurred in the 14th and 15th century. The term appears to have been coined by [[John Robert Seeley|J. R. Seeley]] in his influential work ''[[The Expansion of England]]'' (1883).<ref>Morieux, Renaud: "Diplomacy from Below and Belonging: Fishermen and Cross-Channel Relations in the Eighteenth Century" article in ''"Past & Present"'', 202, (2009), p. 83.</ref>


==Background==
==Background==
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{{Original research|date=January 2022}}
{{Original research|date=January 2022}}
===Beginning: 1688–1714===
===Beginning: 1688–1714===
The series of wars began with the accession of the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[William III of England|William III]] as [[King of England]] in the [[Glorious Revolution|Revolution of 1688]]. His predecessors the [[House of Stuart|Stuarts]] had sought friendly terms with [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]]: [[James I of England|James I]] and [[Charles I of England|Charles I]], both [[Protestantism|Protestants]], had avoided involvement as much as possible in the [[Thirty Years' War]], while [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] and the [[Roman Catholicism|Catholic]] convert [[James II of England|James II]] had even actively supported Louis XIV in his [[Franco-Dutch War|War against the Dutch Republic]]. William III, however, sought to oppose Louis XIV's Catholic regime and styled himself as a Protestant champion. Tensions continued in the following decades, during which France protected [[Jacobitism|Jacobites]] who sought to overthrow the later Stuarts and, after [[Jacobite rising of 1715|1715]], the [[House of Hanover|Hanoverians]].<ref>Claydon, ''"William III"''</ref>
The series of wars began with the accession of the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[William III of England|William III]] as [[King of England]] in the [[Glorious Revolution|Revolution of 1688]]. The [[House of Stuart|Stuarts]] had sought friendly terms with [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]]: [[James I of England|James I]] and [[Charles I of England|Charles I]], both [[Protestantism|Protestants]], had avoided involvement as much as possible in the [[Thirty Years' War]], while [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] and the [[Roman Catholicism|Catholic]] convert [[James II of England|James II]] had even actively supported Louis XIV in his [[Franco-Dutch War|War against the Dutch Republic]]. William III, however, sought to oppose Louis XIV's Catholic regime and styled himself as a Protestant champion. Tensions continued in the following decades, during which France protected and supported [[Jacobitism|Jacobites]] who sought to overthrow the later Stuarts and, after [[Jacobite rising of 1715|1715]], the [[House of Hanover|Hanoverians]].<ref>Claydon, ''"William III"''</ref> The principle Anglo-French conflicts in this time period were [[Nine Years' War|The Nine Year's war]] and the [[War of the Spanish Succession|War of Spanish Succession]]. The war of Spanish Succession saw Britain begin its ascendancy as a commercial and naval power, but after the [[Peace of Utrecht]], the two formed an [[Anglo-French Alliance (1716–1731)|Anglo-French alliance]], their interests converging as they wished to prevent the rise of Spanish or Russian power. The alliance soon fell apart, and the two countries soon became bitter rivals once again.


===Colonies: 1744–1783===
===Colonies: 1744–1783===
After William III, the opposition of France and Britain shifted from religion to economy and trade: the two nations vied for colonial domination in the Americas and Asia. The [[Seven Years' War]] was one of the greatest and most decisive conflicts. France's alliance and backing of the colonists in the [[American Revolutionary War]] against Britain was successful in undermining British colonial hegemony in North America, but in turn debts from that conflict sowed the economic seeds of France's own [[French Revolution|revolution]] shortly thereafter.
After William III, the rivalry between the two countries shifted from being primarily about religion to being primarily about trade, colonies, and maintaining a balance of power. The primary conflicts in this time period between Britain and France were, in order: [[War of the Austrian Succession|The War of the Austrian Succession]], [[Carnatic Wars|The Carnatic Wars]], [[Seven Years' War|The Seven Years' War]], and the [[American Revolutionary War]]. By the end of the Seven Years war, Britain decisively overtook France as Europe's greatest power, destroying French colonial power in India and North America. Yet France took advantage of [[American Revolutionary War]] to undermine British colonial hegemony in North America by supporting the rebellious colonists with both men and material, but debts from that conflict in turn sowed the economic seeds of France's own [[French Revolution|revolution]] shortly thereafter.


===Revolution and Empire: 1792–1815===
===Revolution and Empire: 1792–1815===

The French military rivalry continued with British opposition of the [[French Revolution]] and the ensuing wars with first the new [[French First Republic|French Republic]] and then the [[First French Empire|Empire]] of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]]. His defeat in 1814 was followed by his abdication and exile, but he escaped the following year to begin the [[Hundred Days]]. These came to a close with his military disaster at the [[Battle of Waterloo]], facing an Allied force commanded by the [[Duke of Wellington]]. The end of the Napoleonic Wars effectively ended the recurrent conflict between France and Britain. However, Britain and her allies' goal of restoring the French Bourbon monarchy in the [[Treaty of Paris (1815)|Treaty of Paris]] and the subsequent [[Congress of Vienna]], which sought to prevent further revolutions in Europe,<ref name=BFO-281>''"British and Foreign State Papers"'', p.281</ref> ultimately failed with the later [[Revolutions of 1848]].
The outbreak of the [[French Revolutionary Wars]] led to a renewed period of conflict between Britain and France, the latter now under the control of a [[French First Republic|republican government]]. The British led a pan-European coalition which opposed the French in the wars of the [[War of the First Coalition|first]], [[War of the Second Coalition|second]], [[War of the Third Coalition|third]], [[War of the First Coalition|fourth]], [[War of the Fifth Coalition|fifth]] and [[War of the Sixth Coalition|sixth coalitions]]. Despite Britain's allies in the Coalition suffering repeated defeats at French hands, British naval successes against the French, which deprived France of large parts of the [[French colonial empire]], helped ensure the continued existence of further coalitions during the [[Napoleonic Wars]]. The final defeat of [[Napoleon]] in the [[Battle of Waterloo]] led to his abdication and exile, and effectively ended the recurrent conflict between France and Britain, with Britain decisively affirming its naval, imperial, and colonial supremacy over France for the foreseeable future. The British goal of restoring the French monarchy was confirmed by the [[Treaty of Paris (1815)|Treaty of Paris]] and the subsequent [[Congress of Vienna]].<ref name=BFO-281>''"British and Foreign State Papers"'', p.281</ref>


==Aftermath==
==Aftermath==
[[File:Entente Cordiale dancing.jpg|thumb|A French postcard made in 1904, showing [[Britannia]] and [[Marianne]] dancing together, symbolizing the [[Entente Cordiale]]]]
{{Original research|date=January 2022}}
The recurrent rhetoric used in each country shifted from references to a "natural enemy" to an agreement to tolerate one another. Common interests led the two to cooperate in the [[Crimean War]] of the 1850s. A century after fighting one another (and with the mutual interest in checking the growing power of a [[German unification|united Germany, aside from Austria, with its Empire]]), the two were able to establish the [[Entente Cordiale]] by 1904, demonstrating that the "First" and "Second" Hundred Years' Wars were in the past; cultural differences continued, but violent conflict was over.


After the end of the [[French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars]], direct conflict between France and Britain came to an end, as both countries focused on expanding their colonial empires and consolidating influence in their respective [[Sphere of influence|spheres of influence]]. The two nations fought on the same side in the [[Greek War of Independence]] and the [[Crimean War]], reflecting an increasing level of alignment in British and French foreign policies concerning Europe.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tombs |first1=Robert |last2=Tombs |first2=Isabelle |year=2007 |title=That Sweet Enemy: The French and the British from the Sun King to the Present |publisher=Random House |isbn=978-1-4000-4024-7}}</ref> During the ''[[fin de siècle]]'' period, growing levels of fear in both nations over the growing power of the [[German Empire]] (which was [[Unification of Germany|established in 1871]] as a result of the [[Franco-Prussian War]]) led to the [[Entente Cordiale]], a rapprochement in Anglo-French relations marked by a series of agreements signed on 8 April 1904. The Entente Cordial also resolved colonial disputes between Britain and France, and marked the definitive end of almost a thousand years of intermittent conflict, and replaced the ''modus vivendi'' that had existed since the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 with a more formal agreement.<ref> [[A. J. P. Taylor]], ''The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848–1918'' (1954), pp. 408–417 </ref>
==="Carthage" and "Rome"===
Many in Europe{{who|date=June 2023}} referred to Great Britain as "[[Perfidious Albion]]", suggesting that it was a fundamentally untrustworthy nation. People compared Britain and France to ancient [[Carthage]] and [[Ancient Rome|Rome]], respectively, with the former being cast as a greedy imperialist state that collapsed, while the latter was an intellectual and cultural capital that flourished:
<blockquote>The republicans knew as well as the Bourbons that British control of the oceans weighed in Continental power politics, and that France could not dominate Europe without destroying Britain. "Carthage"—vampire, tyrant of the seas, "perfidious" enemy and bearer of a corrupting commercial civilization—contrasted with "Rome", bearer of universal order, philosophy and selfless values.<ref>Tombs, ''That Sweet Enemy'', p. 208.</ref></blockquote>


==Wars included in the extended conflict==
==Wars included in the extended conflict==
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==See also==
==See also==

* [[New France]] and [[British America]]
* [[Carnatic Wars]]
* [[French East India Company]] and [[East India Company|British East India Company]]
* [[European colonization of the Americas]]
* [[French–German enmity]]
* [[French–Habsburg rivalry]]
* [[France–United Kingdom relations]]
* [[France–United Kingdom relations]]
* [[French–Habsburg relations|French–Habsburg rivalry]] and [[French–German enmity]]
⚫
* [[Long eighteenth century]]
* [[Perfidious Albion]]
* [[French and Indian Wars]]
* [[French and Indian Wars]]
⚫
* [[Long eighteenth century]]


==Footnotes==
==Footnotes==
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[[Category:Wars involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Wars involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:History of diplomacy]]
[[Category:History of diplomacy]]
[[Category:Military historiography]]
[[Category:Historiography by war or conflict]]

Latest revision as of 12:57, 15 April 2024

Second Hundred Years' War
Part of the Anglo-French Wars

Left to right, top to bottom:
Date18 May 1689 – 20 November 1815 (1689-05-18 – 1815-11-20)
(126 years, 6 months and 2 days)
Location
Europe, Atlantic, Africa, the Americas, Indian subcontinent & ocean
Result British victory
Territorial
changes		 Britain annexes Canada, French India, Malta, Ionian islands, St Vincent, Dominica, St. Lucia, Tobago, Mauritius and Seychelles from France
Belligerents
Great Britain France
Commanders and leaders

The Second Hundred Years' War is a periodization or historical era term used by some historians[1][2][3] to describe the series of military conflicts around the globe between Great Britain and France that occurred from about 1689 (or some say 1714) to 1815, including several separate wars such as the War of the Spanish Succession, War of the Austrian Succession, Seven Years' War, American Revolutionary War and the Napoleonic Wars. The Second Hundred Years' War is named after the Hundred Years' War, which occurred in the 14th and 15th century. The term appears to have been coined by J. R. Seeley in his influential work The Expansion of England (1883).[4]

Background[edit]

Like the Hundred Years' War, this term does not describe a single military event but a persistent general state of war between the two primary belligerents. The use of the phrase as an overarching category indicates the interrelation of all the wars as components of the rivalry between France and Britain for world power. It was a war between and over the future of each state's colonial empires.

The two countries remained continual antagonists even as their national identities underwent significant evolution. Great Britain was not a single state until 1707, prior to which it was the separate kingdoms of England and Scotland, albeit with a shared Crown and military establishment. In 1801, Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom. The period also saw France under the Bourbon dynasty, the regimes of the French Revolution and the First Empire.

The various wars between the two states during the 18th century usually involved other European countries in large alliances; except for the War of the Quadruple Alliance when they were bound by the Anglo-French Alliance, France and Britain always opposed one another.[citation needed] Some of the wars, such as the Seven Years' War, have been considered world wars and included battles in the growing colonies in India, the Americas, and ocean shipping routes around the globe.

Wars[edit]

Beginning: 1688–1714[edit]

The series of wars began with the accession of the Dutch William III as King of England in the Revolution of 1688. The Stuarts had sought friendly terms with Louis XIV: James I and Charles I, both Protestants, had avoided involvement as much as possible in the Thirty Years' War, while Charles II and the Catholic convert James II had even actively supported Louis XIV in his War against the Dutch Republic. William III, however, sought to oppose Louis XIV's Catholic regime and styled himself as a Protestant champion. Tensions continued in the following decades, during which France protected and supported Jacobites who sought to overthrow the later Stuarts and, after 1715, the Hanoverians.[5] The principle Anglo-French conflicts in this time period were The Nine Year's war and the War of Spanish Succession. The war of Spanish Succession saw Britain begin its ascendancy as a commercial and naval power, but after the Peace of Utrecht, the two formed an Anglo-French alliance, their interests converging as they wished to prevent the rise of Spanish or Russian power. The alliance soon fell apart, and the two countries soon became bitter rivals once again.

Colonies: 1744–1783[edit]

After William III, the rivalry between the two countries shifted from being primarily about religion to being primarily about trade, colonies, and maintaining a balance of power. The primary conflicts in this time period between Britain and France were, in order: The War of the Austrian Succession, The Carnatic Wars, The Seven Years' War, and the American Revolutionary War. By the end of the Seven Years war, Britain decisively overtook France as Europe's greatest power, destroying French colonial power in India and North America. Yet France took advantage of American Revolutionary War to undermine British colonial hegemony in North America by supporting the rebellious colonists with both men and material, but debts from that conflict in turn sowed the economic seeds of France's own revolution shortly thereafter.

Revolution and Empire: 1792–1815[edit]

The outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars led to a renewed period of conflict between Britain and France, the latter now under the control of a republican government. The British led a pan-European coalition which opposed the French in the wars of the first, second, third, fourth, fifth and sixth coalitions. Despite Britain's allies in the Coalition suffering repeated defeats at French hands, British naval successes against the French, which deprived France of large parts of the French colonial empire, helped ensure the continued existence of further coalitions during the Napoleonic Wars. The final defeat of Napoleon in the Battle of Waterloo led to his abdication and exile, and effectively ended the recurrent conflict between France and Britain, with Britain decisively affirming its naval, imperial, and colonial supremacy over France for the foreseeable future. The British goal of restoring the French monarchy was confirmed by the Treaty of Paris and the subsequent Congress of Vienna.[6]

Aftermath[edit]

A French postcard made in 1904, showing Britannia and Marianne dancing together, symbolizing the Entente Cordiale

After the end of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, direct conflict between France and Britain came to an end, as both countries focused on expanding their colonial empires and consolidating influence in their respective spheres of influence. The two nations fought on the same side in the Greek War of Independence and the Crimean War, reflecting an increasing level of alignment in British and French foreign policies concerning Europe.[7] During the fin de siècle period, growing levels of fear in both nations over the growing power of the German Empire (which was established in 1871 as a result of the Franco-Prussian War) led to the Entente Cordiale, a rapprochement in Anglo-French relations marked by a series of agreements signed on 8 April 1904. The Entente Cordial also resolved colonial disputes between Britain and France, and marked the definitive end of almost a thousand years of intermittent conflict, and replaced the modus vivendi that had existed since the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 with a more formal agreement.[8]

Wars included in the extended conflict[edit]

Important figures[edit]

England, Great Britain
Ruler Reign
Queen Mary II 1689–1694
King William III 1689–1702
Queen Anne 1702–1714
King George I 1714–1727
King George II 1727–1760
King George III 1760–1820
France
Ruler Reign
King Louis XIV 1643–1715
King Louis XV 1715–1774
King Louis XVI 1774–1792
National Convention 1792–1795
Directory 1795–1799
First Consul Bonaparte→Emperor Napoleon I 1799–1814; 1815
King Louis XVIII 1814–1815; 1815–1824

See also[edit]

Footnotes[edit]

  1. ^ Buffinton, Arthur H. The "Second Hundred Years War", 1689–1815 (registration required). New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1929.
  2. ^ Crouzet, François (December 1996). "The Second Hundred Years War: Some Reflections" (subscription required). French History. Volume 10, Issue 4. pp. 432–450. doi:10.1093/fh/10.4.432.
  3. ^ Scott, H. M. (June 1992). "Review: The Second 'Hundred Years War' 1689–1815", The Historical Journal, Vol. 35, No. 2, pp. 443–469. JSTOR 2639677.
  4. ^ Morieux, Renaud (February 2009). "Diplomacy from Below and Belonging: Fishermen and Cross-Channel Relations in the Eighteenth Century". Past & Present. 202, p. 83. JSTOR 25580920.
  5. ^ Claydon, "William III"
  6. ^ "British and Foreign State Papers", p.281
  7. ^ Tombs, Robert; Tombs, Isabelle (2007). That Sweet Enemy: The French and the British from the Sun King to the Present. Random House. ISBN 978-1-4000-4024-7.
  8. ^ A. J. P. Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848–1918 (1954), pp. 408–417

References[edit]

  • Blanning, T. C. W. The Culture of Power and the Power of Culture: Old Regime Europe 1660–1789. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
  • Buffinton, Arthur H. The Second Hundred Years' War, 1689–1815. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1929. 115pp
  • Claydon, Tony. William III. Edinburgh: Pearson Education Limited, 2002.
  • Crouzet, François. "The Second Hundred Years War: Some Reflections." French History 10 (1996), pp. 432–450.
  • Scott, H. M. Review: "The Second 'Hundred Years War' 1689–1815." The Historical Journal 35 (1992), pp. 443–469. (A collection of reviews of articles on the Anglo-French wars of the period, grouped under this heading)
  • Tombs, Robert and Isabelle. That Sweet Enemy: The French and the British from the Sun King to the Present. London: William Heinemann, 2006.
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