Dipper: Difference between revisions

Dippers
	American dipper (Cinclus mexicanus)
Scientific classification
Domain:	Eukaryota
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Aves
Order:	Passeriformes
Superfamily:	Muscicapoidea
Family:	Cinclidae; Sundevall, 1836
Genus:	Cinclus; Borkhausen, 1797
Type species
	Cinclus hydrophilus; Borkhausen, 1797
	Distribution map White-throated dipper Brown dipper American dipper White-capped dipper Rufous-throated dipper

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Turdidae

Cinclidae

	white-throated dipper

	brown dipper

American dipper

	white-capped dipper

	rufous-throated dipper

Phylogeny of the dippers^[2]

Dippers are members of the genus Cinclus in the bird family Cinclidae, so-called because of their bobbing or dipping movements. They are unique among passerines for their ability to dive and swim underwater.

Taxonomy

The genus Cinclus was introduced by the German naturalist Moritz Balthasar Borkhausen in 1797 with the white-throated dipper (Cinclus cinclus) as the type species.^[3]^[4] The name cinclus is from the Ancient Greek word kinklos that was used to describe small tail-wagging birds that resided near water.^[5]

Cinclus is the only genus in the family Cinclidae. The white-throated dipper and American dipper are also known in Britain and America, respectively, as the water ouzel (sometimes spelt "ousel") – ouzel originally meant the only distantly related but superficially similar Eurasian blackbird (Old English osle). Ouzel also survives as the name of a relative of the blackbird, the ring ouzel.^[6]

The genus contains five species:^[7]

White-throated dipper or European dipper, Cinclus cinclus
Brown dipper Cinclus pallasii
American dipper Cinclus mexicanus
White-capped dipper Cinclus leucocephalus
Rufous-throated dipper Cinclus schulzii

A 2002 molecular phylogenetic study of the dippers looked at the DNA sequences of two mitochondrial genes. It found that the Eurasian white-throated dipper and brown dipper are sister species as are the South American white-capped dipper and rufous-throated dipper. The study also showed that the dipper family, Cinclidae, is most closely related to the thrush family, Turdidae.^[2]

Description

Dippers are small, chunky, stout, short-tailed, short-winged, strong-legged birds. The different species are generally dark brown (sometimes nearly black), or brown and white in colour, apart from the rufous-throated dipper, which is brown with a reddish-brown throat patch. Sizes range from 14–22 cm (5.5–8.7 in) in length and 40–90 g (1.4–3.2 oz) in weight, with males larger than females. Their short wings give them a distinctive whirring flight.^[8]^[9]^[10] They have a characteristic bobbing motion when perched beside the water, giving them their name. While under water, they are covered by a thin, silvery film of air, due to small bubbles being trapped on the surface of the plumage.^[9]

Distribution and habitat

Dippers are found in suitable freshwater habitats in the highlands of the Americas, Europe and Asia. In Africa they are only found in the Atlas Mountains of Morocco. They inhabit the banks of fast-moving upland rivers with cold, clear waters, though, outside the breeding season, they may visit lake shores and sea coasts.^[9]

Adaptations

Unlike many water birds, dippers are generally similar in form to many terrestrial birds (for example, they do not have webbed feet), but they do have some morphological and physiological adaptations to their aquatic habits. They have evolved solid bones to reduce their buoyancy,^[11] and their wings are relatively short but strongly muscled, enabling them to be used as flippers underwater. The plumage is dense, with a large preen gland for waterproofing their feathers. Relatively long legs and sharp claws enable them to hold on to rocks in swift water. Their eyes have well-developed focus muscles that can change the curvature of the lens to enhance underwater vision.^[12] They have nasal flaps to prevent water entering their nostrils.^[13]

The high haemoglobin concentration in their blood gives them a capacity to store oxygen greater than that of other birds, allowing them to remain underwater for 30 seconds or more,^[9] whilst their basal metabolic rate is approximately one-third slower than typical terrestrial passerines of similar mass.^[14] One small population wintering at a hot spring in Suntar-Khayata Mountains of Siberia feeds underwater when air temperatures drop below −55 °C (−67 °F).^[15]

Behaviour

Food

Dippers forage for small animal prey in and along the margins of fast-flowing freshwater streams and rivers. They perch on rocks and feed at the edge of the water, but they often also grip the rocks firmly and walk down them beneath the water until partly or wholly submerged. They then search underwater for prey between and beneath stones and debris; they can also swim with their wings. The two South American species swim and dive less often than the three northern ones.^[16] Their prey consists primarily of invertebrates such as the nymphs or larvae of mayflies, blackflies, stoneflies and caddisflies, as well as small fish and fish eggs. Molluscs and crustaceans are also consumed, especially in winter when insect larvae are less available.^[9]

Breeding

Linear breeding territories are established by pairs of dippers along suitable rivers, and maintained against incursion by other dippers. Within their territory the pair must have a good nest site and roost sites, but the main factor affecting the length of the territory is the availability of sufficient food to feed themselves and their broods. Consequently, the length of a territory may vary from about 300 metres (1,000 feet) to over 2,500 metres (8,200 feet).^[9]

Dipper nests are usually large, round, domed structures made of moss, with an internal cup of grass and rootlets, and a side entrance hole. They are often built in confined spaces over, or close to, running water. The site may be on a ledge or bank, in a crevice or drainpipe, or beneath a bridge. Tree sites are rare.^[9]

The usual clutch-size of the three northern dipper species is four or five; those of the South American species is not well known, though some evidence suggests that of the rufous-throated dipper is two.^[17] The incubation period of 16 or 17 days is followed by the hatching of altricial young which are brooded by the female alone for the next 12 to 13 days. The nestlings are fed by both parents and the whole fledging period is about 20–24 days. Young dippers usually become independent of their parents within a couple of weeks of leaving the nest. Dippers may raise second broods if conditions allow.^[9] The maximum recorded age from ring-recovery data of a white-throated dipper is 10 years and 7 months for a bird ringed in Finland.^[18] The maximum age for an American dipper is 8 years and 1 month for a bird ringed and recovered in South Dakota.^[19]

Communication

Dippers' calls are loud and high-pitched, being similar to calls made by other birds on fast rivers; the call frequencies lying within a narrow range of 4.0–6.5 kHz, well above the torrent noise frequency of maximum 2 kHz.^[20] Dippers also communicate visually by their characteristic dipping or bobbing movements, as well as by blinking rapidly to expose the white feathers on their upper eyelids as a series of white flashes in courtship and threat displays.^[12]

Conservation

The rufous-throated dipper is considered Vulnerable by the IUCN

Dippers are completely dependent on fast-flowing rivers with clear water, accessible food and secure nest-sites. They may be threatened by anything that affects these needs such as water pollution, acidification and turbidity caused by erosion. River regulation through the creation of dams and reservoirs, as well as channelization, can degrade and destroy dipper habitat.^[9]

Dippers are also sometimes hunted or otherwise persecuted by humans for various reasons. The Cyprus race of the white-throated dipper is extinct. In the Atlas Mountains dippers are claimed to have aphrodisiacal properties. In parts of Scotland and Germany, until the beginning of the 20th century, bounties were paid for killing dippers because of a misguided perception that they were detrimental to fish stocks through predation on the eggs and fry of salmonids.^[9]

Despite threats to local populations, the conservation status of most dipper species is considered to be of least concern. The one exception, the rufous-throated dipper, is classified as vulnerable because of its small, fragmented and declining population which is threatened, especially in Argentina, by changes in river management.^[21]

References

^ "Cinclidae". aviansystematics.org. The Trust for Avian Systematics. Retrieved 2023-07-15.
^ ^a ^b Voelker, Gary (2002). "Molecular phylogenetics and the historical biogeography of dippers (Cinclus)". Ibis. 144 (4): 577–584. doi:10.1046/j.1474-919X.2002.00084.x.
^ Borkhausen (1797). Deutsche Fauna, oder, Kurzgefasste Naturgeschichte der Thiere Deutschlands. Erster Theil, Saugthiere und Vögel (in German). Frankfurt am Main: Varrentrapp und Wenner. p. 300.
^ Mayr, Ernst; Greenway, James C. Jr, eds. (1960). Check-list of Birds of the World. Vol. 9. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Museum of Comparative Zoology. p. 374.
^ Jobling, James A. (2010). Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 107. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.
^ "ouzel". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
^ Gill, Frank; Donsker, David, eds. (2019). "Dippers, leafbirds, flowerpeckers, sunbirds". World Bird List Version 9.1. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 9 February 2019.
^ Whistler, Hugh (2007). Popular Handbook of Indian Birds (4th ed.). London: British Museum Natural History. ISBN 978-1-4067-4576-4.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j Tyler, Stephanie J.; Ormerod, Stephen J. (1994). The Dippers. London: Poyser. ISBN 0-85661-093-3.
^ Robbins, C.S.; Bruun, B.; & Zim, H.S. (1966). Birds of North America. Western Publishing Company: New York.
^ "Country diary: it looks like a songbird, but the dipper is aquatic to its bones". www.theguardian.com. 7 April 2018. Retrieved 22 October 2023.
^ ^a ^b Goodge, W.R. (1960). "Adaptations for amphibious vision in the Dipper (Cinclus mexicanus)". Journal of Morphology. 107: 79–91. doi:10.1002/jmor.1051070106. PMID 13707012. S2CID 7227306.
^ Ormerod, S.; Tyler, S. (2020). del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A.; Sargatal, J.; Christie, D.A.; de Juana, E. (eds.). "Dippers (Cinclidae)". Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions. doi:10.2173/bow.cincli1.01. S2CID 242827109. Retrieved 11 February 2019. The text is identical to Volume 10 of the print edition published in 2005.
^ Murrish, David E. (1970). "Responses to temperature in the dipper, Cinclus mexicanus". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. 34 (4): 859–869. doi:10.1016/0010-406X(70)91009-1.
^ Dinets, V.; Sanchez, M. (2017). "Brown Dippers (Cinclus pallasi) overwintering at −65°C in Northeastern Siberia". Wilson Journal of Ornithology. 129 (2): 397–400. doi:10.1676/16-071.1. S2CID 91058122.
^ Tyler, S.J. (1994). "The Yungas of Argentina: in search of Rufous-throated Dippers Cinclus schulzi" (PDF). Cotinga. 2: 38–41.
^ Salvador, S.; Narosky, S.; Fraga, R. (1986). "First description of the nest and eggs of the red-throated dipper in northwestern Argentina". Gerfaut. 76: 63–66.
^ "European Longevity Records". Euring. Retrieved 13 February 2019.
^ "Longevity Records of North American Birds". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 13 February 2019.
^ J., Martens; Geduldig, G. (1990). "Acoustic adaptations of birds living close to Himalayan torrents". Proc. Int. 100 DO-G Meeting. Bonn: Current Topics Avian Biol. pp. 123–131.
^ BirdLife International (2017). "Rufous-throated Dipper Cinclus schulzii". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 13 February 2019.

External links

ITIS – Cinclus
Dipper pictures Archived 2012-03-04 at the Wayback Machine in nature photographer Janne Heimonen's photo gallery
Dipper videos on the Internet Bird Collection

[HM4-1] "Cinclidae". aviansystematics.org. The Trust for Avian Systematics. Retrieved 2023-07-15.

[voelker-2] Voelker, Gary (2002). "Molecular phylogenetics and the historical biogeography of dippers (Cinclus)". Ibis. 144 (4): 577–584. doi:10.1046/j.1474-919X.2002.00084.x.

[3] Borkhausen (1797). Deutsche Fauna, oder, Kurzgefasste Naturgeschichte der Thiere Deutschlands. Erster Theil, Saugthiere und Vögel (in German). Frankfurt am Main: Varrentrapp und Wenner. p. 300.

[4] Mayr, Ernst; Greenway, James C. Jr, eds. (1960). Check-list of Birds of the World. Vol. 9. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Museum of Comparative Zoology. p. 374.

[5] Jobling, James A. (2010). Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 107. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.

[6] "ouzel". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)

[ioc-7] Gill, Frank; Donsker, David, eds. (2019). "Dippers, leafbirds, flowerpeckers, sunbirds". World Bird List Version 9.1. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 9 February 2019.

[Whistler1928-8] Whistler, Hugh (2007). Popular Handbook of Indian Birds (4th ed.). London: British Museum Natural History. ISBN 978-1-4067-4576-4.

[Tyler1994-9] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j Tyler, Stephanie J.; Ormerod, Stephen J. (1994). The Dippers. London: Poyser. ISBN 0-85661-093-3.

[Robbins1966-10] Robbins, C.S.; Bruun, B.; & Zim, H.S. (1966). Birds of North America. Western Publishing Company: New York.

[11] "Country diary: it looks like a songbird, but the dipper is aquatic to its bones". www.theguardian.com. 7 April 2018. Retrieved 22 October 2023.

[Goodge1960-12] Goodge, W.R. (1960). "Adaptations for amphibious vision in the Dipper (Cinclus mexicanus)". Journal of Morphology. 107: 79–91. doi:10.1002/jmor.1051070106. PMID 13707012. S2CID 7227306.

[hbw-13] Ormerod, S.; Tyler, S. (2020). del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A.; Sargatal, J.; Christie, D.A.; de Juana, E. (eds.). "Dippers (Cinclidae)". Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions. doi:10.2173/bow.cincli1.01. S2CID 242827109. Retrieved 11 February 2019. The text is identical to Volume 10 of the print edition published in 2005.

[14] Murrish, David E. (1970). "Responses to temperature in the dipper, Cinclus mexicanus". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. 34 (4): 859–869. doi:10.1016/0010-406X(70)91009-1.

[sh/-15] Dinets, V.; Sanchez, M. (2017). "Brown Dippers (Cinclus pallasi) overwintering at −65°C in Northeastern Siberia". Wilson Journal of Ornithology. 129 (2): 397–400. doi:10.1676/16-071.1. S2CID 91058122.

[Tyler1994b-16] Tyler, S.J. (1994). "The Yungas of Argentina: in search of Rufous-throated Dippers Cinclus schulzi" (PDF). Cotinga. 2: 38–41.

[Salvador1986-17] Salvador, S.; Narosky, S.; Fraga, R. (1986). "First description of the nest and eggs of the red-throated dipper in northwestern Argentina". Gerfaut. 76: 63–66.

[18] "European Longevity Records". Euring. Retrieved 13 February 2019.

[19] "Longevity Records of North American Birds". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 13 February 2019.

[Martens1990-20] J., Martens; Geduldig, G. (1990). "Acoustic adaptations of birds living close to Himalayan torrents". Proc. Int. 100 DO-G Meeting. Bonn: Current Topics Avian Biol. pp. 123–131.

[iucn-21] BirdLife International (2017). "Rufous-throated Dipper Cinclus schulzii". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 13 February 2019.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
+{{Short description|Genus of birds}}
-{{other uses}}
+{{Other uses}}
-{{Automatic Taxobox
+{{Automatic taxobox
 | name              = Dippers
 | image             = Cinclus mexicanus FWS.jpg
-| image_caption     = American dipper
+| image_caption     = [[American dipper]] (''Cinclus mexicanus'')
 | parent_authority  = [[Carl Jakob Sundevall|Sundevall]], 1836
 | taxon             = Cinclus
 | authority         = [[Moritz Balthasar Borkhausen|Borkhausen]], 1797
 | display_parents   = 2
+| type_species      = ''[[White-throated dipper|Cinclus hydrophilus]]''<ref name=HM4>{{cite web |url= https://www.aviansystematics.org/4th-edition-checklist?viewfamilies=184 |title= Cinclidae |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website= aviansystematics.org |publisher= The Trust for Avian Systematics |access-date= 2023-07-15}}</ref>
+| type_species_authority = Borkhausen, 1797
 | range_map =Cinclus distr.png
 | range_map_caption=Distribution map
@@ Line 19: / Line 22: @@
 |caption=Phylogeny of the dippers<ref name=voelker/>
 |align=right
-|cladogram={{Cladex| style=font-size:90%;line-height:100%;width:220px;
+|cladogram={{Clade| style=font-size:90%;line-height:100%;width:220px;
 |1={{clade
+   |1=[[Thrush (bird)|Turdidae]]
-   |1={{clade
+   |label2=Cinclidae
+   |2={{clade
       |1={{clade
          |1=[[white-throated dipper]]
@@ Line 34: / Line 39: @@
          }}
       }}
-   |2=[[Thrush (bird)|Turdidae]]
    }}
 }}
 }}
-'''Dippers''' are members of the genus '''''Cinclus''''' in the [[bird]] family Cinclidae, named for their bobbing or dipping movements.  They are unique among [[passerine]]s for their ability to dive and swim underwater.
+'''Dippers''' are members of the genus '''''Cinclus''''' in the [[bird]] family '''Cinclidae''', so-called because of their bobbing or dipping movements.  They are unique among [[passerine]]s for their ability to dive and swim underwater.
 ==Taxonomy==
-The genus ''Cinclus'' was introduced by the German naturalist [[Moritz Balthasar Borkhausen]] in 1797 with the [[white-throated dipper]] (''Cinclus cinclus'') as the [[type species]].<ref>{{ cite book | last=Borkhausen | first= | author-link=Moritz Balthasar Borkhausen | year=1797 | title=Deutsche Fauna, oder, Kurzgefasste Naturgeschichte der Thiere Deutschlands. Erster Theil, Saugthiere und Vögel | language=German | location=Frankfurt am Main | publisher=Varrentrapp und Wenner | page=300 | url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/38962808 }}</ref><ref>{{ cite book | editor1-last=Mayr | editor1-first=Ernst | editor1-link=Ernst Mayr | editor2-last=Greenway | editor2-first=James C. Jr | year=1960 | title=Check-list of Birds of the World | volume=Volume 9 | publisher=Museum of Comparative Zoology  | place=Cambridge, Massachusetts  | page=374 | url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/14481049 }}</ref> The name ''cinclus'' is from the [[Ancient Greek]] word ''kinklos'' that was used to describe small tail-wagging birds that resided near water.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jobling | first=James A. | year=2010 | title=Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | location=London | publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing | isbn= 978-1-4081-2501-4| page=107}}</ref>
+The genus ''Cinclus'' was introduced by the German naturalist [[Moritz Balthasar Borkhausen]] in 1797 with the [[white-throated dipper]] (''Cinclus cinclus'') as the [[type species]].<ref>{{ cite book | last=Borkhausen | author-link=Moritz Balthasar Borkhausen | year=1797 | title=Deutsche Fauna, oder, Kurzgefasste Naturgeschichte der Thiere Deutschlands. Erster Theil, Saugthiere und Vögel | language=de | location=Frankfurt am Main | publisher=Varrentrapp und Wenner | page=300 | url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/38962808 }}</ref><ref>{{ cite book | editor1-last=Mayr | editor1-first=Ernst | editor1-link=Ernst Mayr | editor2-last=Greenway | editor2-first=James C. Jr | year=1960 | title=Check-list of Birds of the World | volume=9 | publisher=Museum of Comparative Zoology  | place=Cambridge, Massachusetts  | page=374 | url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/14481049 }}</ref> The name ''cinclus'' is from the [[Ancient Greek]] word ''kinklos'' that was used to describe small tail-wagging birds that resided near water.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jobling | first=James A. | year=2010 | title=Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | location=London | publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing | isbn= 978-1-4081-2501-4| page=107}}</ref>
-''Cinclus'' is the only genus in the [[family (biology)|family]] Cinclidae. The white-throated dipper and American dipper are also known in Britain and America, respectively, as the ''water ouzel'' (sometimes spelt "ousel") – ouzel originally meant the unrelated but superficially similar [[common blackbird|Eurasian blackbird]] ([[Old English language|Old English]] ''osle'').  Ouzel also survives as the name of a relative of the blackbird, the [[ring ouzel]].<ref>{{cite OED|ouzel}}</ref>
+''Cinclus'' is the only genus in the [[family (biology)|family]] Cinclidae. The white-throated dipper and American dipper are also known in Britain and America, respectively, as the ''water ouzel'' (sometimes spelt "ousel") – ouzel originally meant the only distantly related but superficially similar [[common blackbird|Eurasian blackbird]] ([[Old English language|Old English]] ''osle'').  Ouzel also survives as the name of a relative of the blackbird, the [[ring ouzel]].<ref>{{cite OED|ouzel}}</ref>
-The genus contains five species:<ref name=ioc>{{cite web| editor1-last=Gill | editor1-first=Frank | editor1-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist) | editor2-last=Donsker | editor2-first=David | year=2019 | title=Dippers, leafbirds, flowerpeckers, sunbirds | work=World Bird List Version 9.1 | url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/dippers/ | publisher=International Ornithologists' Union | accessdate=9 February 2019 }}</ref>
+The genus contains five species:<ref name=ioc>{{cite web | editor1-last=Gill | editor1-first=Frank | editor1-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist) | editor2-last=Donsker | editor2-first=David | year=2019 | title=Dippers, leafbirds, flowerpeckers, sunbirds | work=World Bird List Version 9.1 | url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/dippers/ | publisher=International Ornithologists' Union | access-date=9 February 2019 }}</ref>
 *[[White-throated dipper]] or European dipper, ''Cinclus cinclus''
 *[[Brown dipper]] ''Cinclus pallasii''
@@ Line 53: / Line 57: @@
 *[[Rufous-throated dipper]] ''Cinclus schulzii''
-A 2002 [[molecular phylogenetic]] study of the dippers looked at the DNA sequences of two [[mitochondrial]] genes. It found that the Eurasian white-throated dipper and brown dipper are [[sister taxon|sister species]] as are the South American  white-capped dipper and rufous-throated dipper. The study also showed that the dipper family, Cinclidae, is most closely related to the [[thrush (bird)|thrush family]], Turdidae.<ref name=voelker>{{ cite journal | last=Voelker | first=Gary | year=2002 | title=Molecular phylogenetics and the historical biogeography of dippers (''Cinclus'') | journal=Ibis | volume=144 | issue=4 | pages=577-584 | doi=10.1046/j.1474-919X.2002.00084.x }}</ref>
+A 2002 [[molecular phylogenetic]] study of the dippers looked at the DNA sequences of two [[mitochondrial]] genes. It found that the Eurasian white-throated dipper and brown dipper are [[sister taxon|sister species]] as are the South American  white-capped dipper and rufous-throated dipper. The study also showed that the dipper family, Cinclidae, is most closely related to the [[thrush (bird)|thrush family]], Turdidae.<ref name=voelker>{{ cite journal | last=Voelker | first=Gary | year=2002 | title=Molecular phylogenetics and the historical biogeography of dippers (''Cinclus'') | journal=Ibis | volume=144 | issue=4 | pages=577–584 | doi=10.1046/j.1474-919X.2002.00084.x }}</ref>
 ==Description==
 [[File:Eurasian White-fronted Dipper, C cinclus.JPG|thumb|left|[[White-throated dipper]] (''C. cinclus'')]]
-Dippers are small, chunky, stout, short-tailed, short-winged, strong-legged birds. The different species are generally dark brown (sometimes nearly black), or brown and white in colour, apart from the [[rufous-throated dipper]], which is brown with a reddish-brown throat patch.  Sizes range from {{cvt|14|–|22|cm}} in length and {{cvt|40|–|90|g}} in weight, with males larger than females.  Their short wings give them a distinctive whirring flight.<ref name=Whistler1928>{{ cite book | last=Whistler | first=Hugh | year=2007 | title=Popular Handbook of Indian Birds | location=London | publisher=British Museum Natural History | edition=4th | isbn=1-4067-4576-6}}</ref><ref name=Tyler1994/><ref name=Robbins1966>Robbins, C.S.; Bruun, B.; & Zim, H.S. (1966). ''Birds of North America''. Western Publishing Company: New York.</ref>  They have a characteristic bobbing motion when perched beside the water, giving them their name. While under water, they are covered by a thin, silvery film of air, due to small bubbles being trapped on the surface of the plumage.<ref name=Tyler1994/>
+Dippers are small, chunky, stout, short-tailed, short-winged, strong-legged birds. The different species are generally dark brown (sometimes nearly black), or brown and white in colour, apart from the [[rufous-throated dipper]], which is brown with a reddish-brown throat patch.  Sizes range from {{cvt|14|–|22|cm}} in length and {{cvt|40|–|90|g}} in weight, with males larger than females.  Their short wings give them a distinctive whirring flight.<ref name=Whistler1928>{{ cite book | last=Whistler | first=Hugh | year=2007 | title=Popular Handbook of Indian Birds | location=London | publisher=British Museum Natural History | edition=4th | isbn=978-1-4067-4576-4}}</ref><ref name=Tyler1994/><ref name=Robbins1966>Robbins, C.S.; Bruun, B.; & Zim, H.S. (1966). ''Birds of North America''. Western Publishing Company: New York.</ref>  They have a characteristic bobbing motion when perched beside the water, giving them their name. While under water, they are covered by a thin, silvery film of air, due to small bubbles being trapped on the surface of the plumage.<ref name=Tyler1994/>
 ==Distribution and habitat==
@@ Line 63: / Line 67: @@
 ==Adaptations==
-Unlike many water birds, dippers are generally similar in form to many terrestrial birds (for example they do not have [[Bird feet and legs#Webbing and lobation|webbed feet]]), but they do have some morphological and physiological adaptations to their aquatic habits.  Their wings are relatively short but strongly muscled, enabling them to be used as flippers underwater. Their bones are solid instead of [[skeletal pneumaticity|hollow]] which reduces their [[buoyancy]].<ref>[http://www.tonykeenebirds.co.uk/bbirds/whitethroateddipper.html White-throated Dipper - Tony Keene Birds]</ref> They have dense [[plumage]] with a large [[preen gland]] for waterproofing their feathers.  Relatively long legs and sharp claws enable them to hold on to rocks in swift water. Their eyes have well-developed focus muscles that can change the curvature of the lens to enhance underwater vision.<ref name=Goodge1960>{{cite journal | last = Goodge | first = W.R. | year = 1960 | title = Adaptations for amphibious vision in the Dipper (''Cinclus mexicanus'') | journal = Journal of Morphology | volume = 107 | pages = 79–91 | doi=10.1002/jmor.1051070106 }}</ref>  They have nasal flaps to prevent water entering their nostrils.<ref name=hbw>{{cite web | last1=Ormerod | first1=S. | last2=Tyler | first2=S. | year=2019 | title=Dippers (Cinclidae) | editor1-last=del Hoyo | editor1-first=J. | editor2-last=Elliott | editor2-first=A. | editor3-last=Sargatal | editor3-first=J. | editor4-last=Christie | editor4-first=D.A. | editor5-last=de Juana | editor5-first=E. | work=Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive | publisher=Lynx Edicions | url=https://www.hbw.com/node/52314 | accessdate=11 February 2019 | subscription=true }} The text is identical to Volume 10 of the print edition published in 2005.</ref>
+Unlike many water birds, dippers are generally similar in form to many terrestrial birds (for example, they do not have [[Bird feet and legs#Webbing and lobation|webbed feet]]), but they do have some morphological and physiological adaptations to their aquatic habits. They have evolved solid bones to reduce their buoyancy,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/apr/07/country-diary-dipper-aquatic-to-its-bones-garsdale-cumbria |title=Country diary: it looks like a songbird, but the dipper is aquatic to its bones |work=www.theguardian.com |date=7 April 2018 |access-date=22 October 2023}}</ref> and their wings are relatively short but strongly muscled, enabling them to be used as flippers underwater. The [[plumage]] is dense, with a large [[preen gland]] for waterproofing their feathers. Relatively long legs and sharp claws enable them to hold on to rocks in swift water. Their eyes have well-developed focus muscles that can change the curvature of the lens to enhance underwater vision.<ref name=Goodge1960>{{cite journal | last = Goodge | first = W.R. | year = 1960 | title = Adaptations for amphibious vision in the Dipper (''Cinclus mexicanus'') | journal = Journal of Morphology | volume = 107 | pages = 79–91 | doi=10.1002/jmor.1051070106 | pmid = 13707012 | s2cid = 7227306 }}</ref>  They have nasal flaps to prevent water entering their nostrils.<ref name=hbw>{{cite journal | last1=Ormerod | first1=S. | last2=Tyler | first2=S. | year=2020 | title=Dippers (Cinclidae) | editor1-last=del Hoyo | editor1-first=J. | editor2-last=Elliott | editor2-first=A. | editor3-last=Sargatal | editor3-first=J. | editor4-last=Christie | editor4-first=D.A. | editor5-last=de Juana | editor5-first=E. | journal=Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive | publisher=Lynx Edicions | doi=10.2173/bow.cincli1.01 | s2cid=242827109 | url=https://www.hbw.com/node/52314 | access-date=11 February 2019 |url-access=subscription  }} The text is identical to Volume 10 of the print edition published in 2005.</ref>
-The high [[haemoglobin]] concentration in their [[blood]] gives them a capacity to store [[oxygen]] greater than that of other birds, allowing them to remain underwater for thirty seconds or more,<ref name=Tyler1994>{{ cite book | last1=Tyler | first1=Stephanie J. | last2=Ormerod | first2=Stephen J.  | year=1994 | title=The Dippers | location=London | publisher=Poyser | isbn=0-85661-093-3}}</ref> whilst their [[basal metabolic rate]] is approximately one-third slower than typical terrestrial passerines of similar mass.<ref>{{ cite journal | last=Murrish | first=David E.| year=1970 | title=Responses to temperature in the dipper, ''Cinclus mexicanus'' | journal=Comparative Biochemical Physiology | volume=34 | issue=4 | pages=859-869 | doi=10.1016/0010-406X(70)91009-1 }}</ref> One small population wintering at a hot spring in [[Suntar-Khayata Range|Suntar-Khayata Mountains]] of [[Siberia]] feeds underwater when air temperatures drop below {{convert|-55|C}}.<ref name="sh/">{{ cite journal | last1=Dinets | first1=V. | last2=Sanchez | first2=M. | year=2017 | title=Brown Dippers (''Cinclus pallasi'') overwintering at −65°C in Northeastern Siberia | journal=Wilson Journal of Ornithology | volume=129 | issue=2 | pages=397–400 | doi=10.1676/16-071.1 }}</ref>
+The high [[haemoglobin]] concentration in their [[blood]] gives them a capacity to store [[oxygen]] greater than that of other birds, allowing them to remain underwater for 30 seconds or more,<ref name=Tyler1994>{{ cite book | last1=Tyler | first1=Stephanie J. | last2=Ormerod | first2=Stephen J.  | year=1994 | title=The Dippers | location=London | publisher=Poyser | isbn=0-85661-093-3}}</ref> whilst their [[basal metabolic rate]] is approximately one-third slower than typical terrestrial passerines of similar mass.<ref>{{ cite journal | last=Murrish | first=David E.| year=1970 | title=Responses to temperature in the dipper, ''Cinclus mexicanus'' | journal= Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology| volume=34 | issue=4 | pages=859–869 | doi=10.1016/0010-406X(70)91009-1 }}</ref> One small population wintering at a hot spring in [[Suntar-Khayata Range|Suntar-Khayata Mountains]] of [[Siberia]] feeds underwater when air temperatures drop below {{convert|-55|C}}.<ref name="sh/">{{ cite journal | last1=Dinets | first1=V. | last2=Sanchez | first2=M. | year=2017 | title=Brown Dippers (''Cinclus pallasi'') overwintering at −65°C in Northeastern Siberia | journal=Wilson Journal of Ornithology | volume=129 | issue=2 | pages=397–400 | doi=10.1676/16-071.1 | s2cid=91058122 }}</ref>
 ==Behaviour==
 ===Food===
-Dippers [[forage]] for small animal prey in and along the margins of fast-flowing freshwater streams and rivers.  They perch on rocks and feed at the edge of the water, but they often also grip the rocks firmly and walk down them beneath the water until partly or wholly submerged.  They then search underwater for prey between and beneath stones and debris; they can also swim with their wings.  The two South American species swim and dive less often than the three northern ones.<ref name=Tyler1994b>{{cite journal | last = Tyler | first = S.J. | title = The Yungas of Argentina: in search of Rufous-throated Dippers ''Cinclus schulzi'' | journal = Cotinga | volume = 2 | issue =  | pages = 38–41 | year = 1994 | url=http://www.neotropicalbirdclub.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/Cotinga-02-1994-38-41.pdf }}</ref>  Their prey consists primarily of [[invertebrate]]s such as the [[nymph (biology)|nymph]]s or [[larva]]e of [[mayfly|mayflies]], [[Black fly|blackflies]], [[Plecoptera|stoneflies]] and [[Trichoptera|caddisflies]], as well as small fish and fish eggs.  [[Mollusc]]s and [[crustacean]]s are also consumed, especially in winter when insect larvae are less available.<ref name=Tyler1994/>
+Dippers [[forage]] for small animal prey in and along the margins of fast-flowing freshwater streams and rivers.  They perch on rocks and feed at the edge of the water, but they often also grip the rocks firmly and walk down them beneath the water until partly or wholly submerged.  They then search underwater for prey between and beneath stones and debris; they can also swim with their wings.  The two South American species swim and dive less often than the three northern ones.<ref name=Tyler1994b>{{cite journal | last = Tyler | first = S.J. | title = The Yungas of Argentina: in search of Rufous-throated Dippers ''Cinclus schulzi'' | journal = Cotinga | volume = 2 | pages = 38–41 | year = 1994 | url=http://www.neotropicalbirdclub.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/Cotinga-02-1994-38-41.pdf }}</ref>  Their prey consists primarily of [[invertebrate]]s such as the [[nymph (biology)|nymph]]s or [[larva]]e of [[mayfly|mayflies]], [[Black fly|blackflies]], [[Plecoptera|stoneflies]] and [[Trichoptera|caddisflies]], as well as small fish and fish eggs.  [[Mollusc]]s and [[crustacean]]s are also consumed, especially in winter when insect larvae are less available.<ref name=Tyler1994/>
 ===Breeding===
-Linear breeding territories are established by pairs of dippers along suitable rivers, and maintained against incursion by other dippers.  Within their territory the pair must have a good nest site and roost sites, but the main factor affecting the length of the territory is the availability of sufficient food to feed themselves and their broods.  Consequently, the length of a territory may vary from about {{convert|300|m|ft|-2|disp=or}} to over {{convert|2500|m|ft|-2|disp=or}}.<ref name=Tyler1994/>
+Linear breeding territories are established by pairs of dippers along suitable rivers, and maintained against incursion by other dippers.  Within their territory the pair must have a good nest site and roost sites, but the main factor affecting the length of the territory is the availability of sufficient food to feed themselves and their broods.  Consequently, the length of a territory may vary from about {{convert|300|m|ft|-2|abbr=off}} to over {{convert|2500|m|ft|-2|abbr=off}}.<ref name=Tyler1994/>
 Dipper nests are usually large, round, domed structures made of [[moss]], with an internal cup of grass and rootlets, and a side entrance hole.  They are often built in confined spaces over, or close to, running water.  The site may be on a ledge or bank, in a crevice or drainpipe, or beneath a bridge.  Tree sites are rare.<ref name=Tyler1994/>
-The usual clutch-size of the three northern dipper species is four or five; those of the South American species is not well known, though some evidence suggests that of the rufous-throated dipper is two.<ref name=Salvador1986>{{cite journal | last = Salvador | first = S. |author2=Narosky, S. |author3=Fraga, R. | title = First description of the nest and eggs of the red-throated dipper in northwestern Argentina | journal = Gerfaut | volume = 76 | pages = 63–66 | year = 1986 | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/294873606 }}</ref>  The incubation period of sixteen or seventeen days is followed by the hatching of [[altricial]] young which are brooded by the female alone for the next twelve to thirteen days. The nestlings are fed by both parents and the whole fledging period is about 20–24 days.  Young dippers usually become independent of their parents within a couple of weeks of leaving the nest. Dippers may raise second broods if conditions allow.<ref name=Tyler1994/> Owing to the fact that bands inhibit their underwater movement, dippers are essentially unsuitable for [[bird ringing|ringing]], so relatively little is known about maximum longevity or other aspects of their demographics, although records of a white-throated dipper living ten years and seven months do exist.<ref>Healy, Kevin, Guillerme, Thomas, Finlay, Sive, Kane, Adam, Kelly, Seán B. A., McClean, Deirdre, Kelly, David J., Donohue, Ian, Jackson, Andrew L. and Cooper, Natalie; ‘Ecology and mode-of-life explain lifespan variation in birds and mammals’; ''Proceedings of the Royal Society''; June 2014(281); supplementary material</ref>
+The usual clutch-size of the three northern dipper species is four or five; those of the South American species is not well known, though some evidence suggests that of the rufous-throated dipper is two.<ref name=Salvador1986>{{cite journal | last = Salvador | first = S. |author2=Narosky, S. |author3=Fraga, R. | title = First description of the nest and eggs of the red-throated dipper in northwestern Argentina | journal = Gerfaut | volume = 76 | pages = 63–66 | year = 1986 | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/294873606 }}</ref>  The incubation period of 16 or 17 days is followed by the hatching of [[altricial]] young which are brooded by the female alone for the next 12 to 13 days. The nestlings are fed by both parents and the whole fledging period is about 20–24 days.  Young dippers usually become independent of their parents within a couple of weeks of leaving the nest. Dippers may raise second broods if conditions allow.<ref name=Tyler1994/> The maximum recorded age from [[Bird ringing|ring-recovery]] data of a white-throated dipper is 10 years and 7 months for a bird ringed in Finland.<ref>{{cite web| title=European Longevity Records   |url=https://euring.org/data-and-codes/longevity-list?page=4 |publisher=Euring | access-date=13 February 2019 }}</ref> The maximum age for an American dipper is 8 years and 1 month for a bird ringed and recovered in South Dakota.<ref>{{ cite web | title=Longevity Records of North American Birds | publisher=United States Geological Survey | url=https://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/BBL/longevity/Longevity_main.cfm | access-date=13 February 2019 }}</ref>
 ===Communication===
-Dippers’ calls are loud and high-pitched, being similar to calls made by other birds on fast rivers; the [[sound frequency|call frequencies]] lying within a narrow range of 4.0–6.5 [[kHz]], well above the torrent noise frequency of <2&nbsp;kHz.<ref name=Martens1990>{{cite conference | first = Martens | last = J. |author2=Geduldig, G. | title = Acoustic adaptations of birds living close to Himalayan torrents | booktitle = Proc. Int. 100 DO-G Meeting | pages = 123–131 | publisher = Current Topics Avian Biol. | year = 1990 | location = Bonn }}</ref>  Dippers also communicate visually by their characteristic dipping or bobbing movements, as well as by blinking rapidly to expose their pale upper [[eyelid]]s as a series of white flashes in courtship and threat displays.<ref name=Goodge1960/><ref name=Creutz1966>Creutz, G. (1966). ''Die Wasseramsel''. A. Ziensen: Wittenburg Lutherstadt.</ref>
+Dippers' calls are loud and high-pitched, being similar to calls made by other birds on fast rivers; the [[sound frequency|call frequencies]] lying within a narrow range of 4.0–6.5&nbsp;[[kHz]], well above the torrent noise frequency of maximum 2&nbsp;kHz.<ref name=Martens1990>{{cite conference | first = Martens | last = J. |author2=Geduldig, G. | title = Acoustic adaptations of birds living close to Himalayan torrents | book-title = Proc. Int. 100 DO-G Meeting | pages = 123–131 | publisher = Current Topics Avian Biol. | year = 1990 | location = Bonn }}</ref>  Dippers also communicate visually by their characteristic dipping or bobbing movements, as well as by blinking rapidly to expose the white feathers on their upper eyelids as a series of white flashes in courtship and threat displays.<ref name=Goodge1960/>
 ==Conservation==
@@ Line 88: / Line 92: @@
 Dippers are also sometimes [[hunting|hunted]] or otherwise persecuted by humans for various reasons.  The [[Cyprus]] race of the white-throated dipper is extinct.  In the Atlas Mountains dippers are claimed to have [[aphrodisiac]]al properties.  In parts of [[Scotland]] and [[Germany]], until the beginning of the 20th century, [[bounty (reward)|bounties]] were paid for killing dippers because of a misguided perception that they were detrimental to fish stocks through predation on the eggs and fry of [[salmonid]]s.<ref name=Tyler1994/>
-Despite threats to local populations, the conservation status of most dipper species is considered to be of least concern.  The one exception, the rufous-throated dipper, is classified as vulnerable because of its small, fragmented and declining population which is threatened, especially in Argentina, by changes in river management.<ref name=iucn>{{cite web | author=BirdLife International | title=Rufous-throated Dipper ''Cinclus schulzii'' | work=[[IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]] | publisher=[[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] | year=2017 | url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22708169/111053629 | accessdate=13 February 2019}}</ref>
+Despite threats to local populations, the conservation status of most dipper species is considered to be of [[least concern]].  The one exception, the rufous-throated dipper, is classified as [[Vulnerable species|vulnerable]] because of its small, fragmented and declining population which is threatened, especially in Argentina, by changes in river management.<ref name=iucn>{{cite web | author=BirdLife International | title=Rufous-throated Dipper ''Cinclus schulzii'' | work=[[IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]] | publisher=[[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] | year=2017 | url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22708169/111053629 | access-date=13 February 2019}}</ref>
 ==References==
 {{Reflist}}
+== Further reading ==
+* [[Stephanie Tyler|Tyler, Stephanie J.]] & [[Steve Ormerod|Ormerod, Stephen J.]] (1994) ''The Dippers'' (Poyser, London) {{ISBN|0-85661-093-3}}
 ==External links==
-*[http://www.itis.usda.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=178535 ITIS – Cinclus]
+*[https://web.archive.org/web/20040820123945/http://www.itis.usda.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=178535 ITIS – Cinclus]
-*[http://www.janneheimonen.net/Gallery/Birds/Dipper-Cinclus-cinclus/ Dipper pictures] in nature photographer Janne Heimonen's photo gallery
+*[http://www.janneheimonen.net/Gallery/Birds/Dipper-Cinclus-cinclus/ Dipper pictures] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304122318/http://www.janneheimonen.net/Gallery/Birds/Dipper-Cinclus-cinclus/ |date=2012-03-04 }} in nature photographer Janne Heimonen's photo gallery
 *[http://ibc.lynxeds.com/family/dippers-cinclidae Dipper videos] on the Internet Bird Collection
-*[http://www.xeno-canto.org/browse.php?query=cinclidae Dipper sounds] on xeno-canto.org
+{{Passerida|M.|state=collapsed}}
 {{Taxonbar|from=Q192575}}
+{{Authority control}}
 [[Category:Cinclidae|*]]