Cofán language: Difference between revisions
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{{Infobox language |
{{Infobox language |
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| name = Cofán |
| name = Cofán |
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| nativename = |
| nativename = {{lang|con|A{{hamza}}ingae}} |
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| states = [[Ecuador]], [[Colombia]] |
| states = [[Ecuador]], [[Colombia]] |
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| ethnicity = [[Cofán people]] |
| ethnicity = [[Cofán people]] |
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| speakers = |
| speakers = {{sigfig|1,020|2}} |
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| date = 2012 |
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| ref = e25 |
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| familycolor = American |
| familycolor = American |
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| family = [[ |
| family = [[Language isolate]] |
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| iso3 = con |
| iso3 = con |
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| glotto = cofa1242 |
| glotto = cofa1242 |
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| glottorefname = Cofán |
| glottorefname = Cofán |
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| map = Cofán.png |
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| script = [[Latin script]] |
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}} |
}} |
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'''''A{{hamza}}ingae''''', commonly known as '''Cofán''' or '''Kofán''', is the primary language of the [[Cofán people|A{{hamza}}i (Cofán) people]], an indigenous group whose ancestral territory lies at the interface between the Andean foothills and Amazonia in the northeast of Ecuador (Sucumbíos province) and southern Colombia (Putumayo & Nariño provinces). |
'''''A{{hamza}}ingae''''', commonly known as '''Cofán''' or '''Kofán''', is the primary language of the [[Cofán people|A{{hamza}}i (Cofán) people]], an indigenous group whose ancestral territory lies at the interface between the Andean foothills and Amazonia in the northeast of Ecuador (Sucumbíos province) and southern Colombia (Putumayo & Nariño provinces). |
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While past classifications have identified Cofán as belonging to linguistic families such as Chibchan<ref>Rivet |
While past classifications have identified Cofán as belonging to linguistic families such as [[Chibchan languages|Chibchan]]<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rivet |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Rivet |date=1924 |title=Langues américaines |journal=Langues de l'Amérique du Sud et des Antilles |editor1=Antoine Meillet |editor2=Marcel Cohen |volume=2 |series=Les langues du monde |publisher=Société Linguistique de Paris |location=Paris |lang=fr}}</ref> or Andean B,<ref>Greenberg. Joseph H. (1960), The general classification of Central and South American languages. In: Anthony Wallace ed., ''Men and cultures: Selected papers of the 5th International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences (1956).'' Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 791-794.</ref> it is now widely agreed to be a language isolate, with no known genetic relatives.<ref>Adelaar, Willem F.H. with Pieter C. Muysken (2004), ''The languages of the Andes.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 454.</ref><ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" /><ref>"Las construcciones relativas 'superlibres' en lenguas mayas ['Super-free' relative constructions in Mayan languages]" -- AnderBois, Scott, Miguel Oscar Chan Dzul, Jessica Coon, Juan Jesús Vázquez Álvarez, Conference on Indigenous Languages of South America (CILLA) IX, The University of Texas at Austin.</ref><ref name=":2" /> Although still robustly learned by children in Ecuadorian communities, it is considered an 'endangered' language with estimates of around 1500 native speakers. |
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== History and |
== History and current status == |
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A{{hamza}}ingae is a language isolate of Amazonia spoken by the Cofán people in |
A{{hamza}}ingae is a language isolate of Amazonia spoken by the Cofán people in [[Sucumbios Province]] in northeastern Ecuador and the departments of [[Putumayo Department|Putumayo]] and [[Nariño Department|Nariño]] in southern Colombia. The language has approximately 1500 speakers and is relatively vital in Ecuador and severely endangered in Colombia.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Dąbkowski|first=Maksymilian|date=2021|title=A{{hamza}}ingae (Ecuador and Colombia) - Language Snapshot|url=http://www.elpublishing.org/PID/223|journal=Language Documentation and Description|volume=20|pages=1–12}}</ref> However, language attitudes about A{{hamza}}ingae are positive and it is considered foundational to Cofán identity and community (Cepek 2012). |
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The A{{hamza}}i are traditionally hunter-gatherers who historically spanned over a large territory (AnderBois et al. 2019). In Ecuador, the Cofán have resisted conquest by the Inca and colonization by the Spanish, as well as anti-indigenous policies by the Ecuadorian government. The pre- |
The A{{hamza}}i are traditionally hunter-gatherers who historically spanned over a large territory (AnderBois et al. 2019). In Ecuador, the Cofán have resisted conquest by the Inca and colonization by the Spanish, as well as anti-indigenous policies by the Ecuadorian government. The pre-Colombian Cofán population is estimated at 60,000 to 70,000. Though the origin of the Cofán is the Eastern Andean Cordilleras, Inca encroachment pushed the Cofán to the eastern lowlands, which they still inhabit today. The Cofán have undergone de facto segregation codified by the Ecuadorian government, a measles outbreak in 1923 that reduced the population to a few hundred, and illegal oil extraction that threatened the environment in Cofán territory and the Cofán way of life. The Cofán have played a major role in the Indigenous movement in Ecuador, and in 2018 they won a judicial case recognizing their right to decide over environmental activities in their territory and prohibiting the continued operation of mining activities.<ref name=":2" /> |
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The Cofán's religious tradition is shamanistic, and a key cultural value of the Cofán is harmonious conviviality. In addition, participation in cultural practices such as drinking yaje and traditional skills like hunting and housebuilding, rather than descent or ethnicity, plays a large role in determining one's status as an a{{hamza}}i (Cepek 2012). The Cofán credit their strong linguistic identity for their ability to withstand colonial oppression and protect their traditional way of life.<ref name=":2" /> |
The Cofán's religious tradition is shamanistic, and a key cultural value of the Cofán is harmonious conviviality. In addition, participation in cultural practices such as drinking yaje and traditional skills like hunting and housebuilding, rather than descent or ethnicity, plays a large role in determining one's status as an a{{hamza}}i (Cepek 2012). The Cofán credit their strong linguistic identity for their ability to withstand colonial oppression and protect their traditional way of life.<ref name=":2" /> |
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A{{hamza}}ingae is a language isolate. The language has considerable Amazonian borrowings from Tukanoan and Cariban languages, as well as many Quechuan borrowings. While there have been previous claims of genetic ties or language contact of A{{hamza}}ingae to Barbacoan, Chicham, and Chibchan, it has been determined that there are no substantial borrowings.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=Repetti-Ludlow|first1=Chiara|last2=Zhang|first2=Haoru|last3=Lucitante|first3=Hugo|last4=AnderBois|first4=Scott|last5=Sanker|first5=Chelsea|date=December 2020|title=A |
A{{hamza}}ingae is a language isolate. The language has considerable Amazonian borrowings from Tukanoan and Cariban languages, as well as many Quechuan borrowings. While there have been previous claims of genetic ties or language contact of A{{hamza}}ingae to Barbacoan, Chicham, and Chibchan, it has been determined that there are no substantial borrowings.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Repetti-Ludlow |first1=Chiara |last2=Zhang |first2=Haoru |last3=Lucitante |first3=Hugo |last4=AnderBois |first4=Scott |last5=Sanker |first5=Chelsea |date=December 2020 |title=A{{hamza}}ingae (Cofán) |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |language=en |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=431–444 |doi=10.1017/S0025100319000082 |s2cid=198596111 |issn=0025-1003 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0025100319000082/type/journal_article}}</ref> No complete grammar of the language has been produced.<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld">{{citation |first1=Rafael |last1=Fischer |first2=Kees |last2=Hengeveld |date= |title=A{{hamza}}ingae (Cofán/Kofán) |url=https://keeshengeveld.humanities.uva.nl/publications/fc_fischer&hengeveld.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929104542/https://keeshengeveld.humanities.uva.nl/publications/fc_fischer&hengeveld.pdf |archive-date=Sep 29, 2022}}</ref> |
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The name of the language, |
The name of the language, {{lang|con|A{{hamza}}ingae}}, which consists of the stem {{lang|con|a{{hamza}}i}} ('person, Cofán person, civilized person') and the manner clitic {{lang|con|{{=}}ngae}}, means 'in the manner of the people'. Though the speakers use the word {{lang|con|A{{hamza}}ingae}}, the language is also known by the Spanish denomination {{lang|es|Cofán}}. |
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== Writing System (Orthography) == |
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A{{hamza}}ingae has two principal orthographies, both using the Latin alphabet. The first was developed by missionaries Marlytte and Roberta Borman, and first employed in M. Borman (1962).<ref>Borman, Marlytte Bub (1962). “Cofán Phonemes.” In: ''Studies in Ecuadorian Indian Languages''. Vol. I. Ed. by Banjamin Elson. Linguistic series 7. México, D. F.: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano (Summer Institute of Linguistics), pp. 45–59</ref> This orthography was influenced by Spanish and thus contained some needless complexity such as representing the phoneme /k/ with {{angbr|qu}} before front vowels, and with {{angbr|c}} elsewhere. Borman also conveyed aspirated obstruents via reduplication instead of via <h> insertion like in the modern orthography. More recently, the Cofán community has created and widely adopted a new writing system which aimed to solve some of the opacities of Borman's script. A comparison between the two orthographies can be observed in the tables below: |
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{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |
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|+Consonants |
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! IPA |
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! Borman |
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! Community |
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! IPA |
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! Borman |
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! Community |
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|- |
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| /p/ |
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|colspan="2"| p |
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| /ⁿdz/ |
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|colspan="2"| ndz, dz** |
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|- |
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| /pʰ/ |
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| pp |
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| ph |
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| /ⁿdʒ/ |
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|colspan="2"|ndy, dy |
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|- |
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| /t/ |
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|colspan="2"| t |
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| /f/ |
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|colspan="2"| f |
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|- |
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| /tʰ/ |
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| tt |
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| th |
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| /s/ |
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|colspan="2"| s |
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|- |
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| /k/ |
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| c, qu |
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| k |
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| /ʃ/ |
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|colspan="2"| sh |
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|- |
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| /kʰ/ |
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| cc, qqu |
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| kh |
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| /h/ |
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|colspan="2"| j |
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|- |
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| /ʔ/ |
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|colspan="2"| {{hamza}} |
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| /m/ |
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|colspan="2"| m |
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|- |
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| /ts/ |
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|colspan="2"| ts |
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| /n/ |
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|colspan="2"| n |
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|- |
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| /tsʰ/ |
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| tss |
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| tsh |
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| /ɲ/ |
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|colspan="2"| ñ |
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|- |
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| /tʃ/ |
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|colspan="2"| ch |
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| /ɾ/ |
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|colspan="2"| r |
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|- |
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| /tʃʰ/ |
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| cch |
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| chh |
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| /ʋ/ |
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|colspan="2"| v |
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|- |
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| /ᵐb/ |
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|colspan="2"| mb, b* |
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| /j/ |
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|colspan="2"| y |
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|- |
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| /ⁿd/ |
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|colspan="2"| nd, d |
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| /ɰ/ |
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|colspan="2"| g |
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|- |
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| /ᵑɡ/ |
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|colspan="2"| ng, g |
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| colspan="3" | |
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|} |
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<nowiki>*</nowiki> The prenasalized voiced stops and affricates are written without a homorganic nasal at the beginning of words. This is because word-initially, voiced stops are realized with less nasality than they are word-medially, hence the orthographic representation. However Repetti-Ludlow et al. (2020)<ref name=":6" /> found that there is still some nasalisation present. |
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<nowiki>**</nowiki> Both Borman and Community orthographies show inconsistency between the use of {{grapheme|dz}} and {{grapheme|z}} |
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{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |
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|+Vowels |
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!IPA !! Borman !! Community |
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!IPA !! Borman !! Community |
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|- |
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|/a/ |
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| colspan="2"|a |
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|/ã/ |
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| colspan="2"|an, a |
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|- |
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|/e/ |
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| colspan="2"|e |
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|/ẽ/ |
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| colspan="2"|en, e |
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|- |
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|/i/ |
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| colspan="2"|i |
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|/ĩ/ |
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| colspan="2"|in, i |
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|- |
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|/o/ |
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|o |
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|u |
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|/õ/ |
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|on, o |
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|un, u |
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|- |
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|/ɨ/ |
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|u |
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|û |
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|/ɨ̃/ |
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|un, u |
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|ûn, û |
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|} |
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== Phonology == |
== Phonology == |
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Line 161: | Line 39: | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |
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|- |
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! colspan="2" | |
! colspan="2" | |
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! [[Labial consonant|Labial]] |
! [[Labial consonant|Labial]] |
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![[Labiodental consonant|Labiodental]] |
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! colspan="2" | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] |
! colspan="2" | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] |
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![[Postalveolar consonant|Postalveolar]] |
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! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] |
! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] |
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! [[Velar consonant|Velar]] |
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]] |
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Line 174: | Line 49: | ||
!{{small|plain}} |
!{{small|plain}} |
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| {{IPA link|p}} |
| {{IPA link|p}} |
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| |
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| {{IPA link|t}} |
| {{IPA link|t}} |
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| {{IPA link|t͡s}} |
| {{IPA link|t͡s}} |
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|{{IPA link|t͡ʃ}} |
| {{IPA link|t͡ʃ}} |
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| |
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| {{IPA link|k}} |
| {{IPA link|k}} |
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| {{IPA link|ʔ}} |
| {{IPA link|ʔ}} |
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Line 184: | Line 57: | ||
!{{small|aspirated}} |
!{{small|aspirated}} |
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| {{IPA|pʰ}} |
| {{IPA|pʰ}} |
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| |
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| {{IPA|tʰ}} |
| {{IPA|tʰ}} |
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| {{IPA|t͡sʰ}} |
| {{IPA|t͡sʰ}} |
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|{{IPA|t͡ʃʰ}} |
| {{IPA|t͡ʃʰ}} |
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| |
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| {{IPA|kʰ}} |
| {{IPA|kʰ}} |
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| |
| |
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Line 194: | Line 65: | ||
!{{small|prenasal}} |
!{{small|prenasal}} |
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| {{IPA|ᵐb}} |
| {{IPA|ᵐb}} |
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| |
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| {{IPA|ⁿd}} |
| {{IPA|ⁿd}} |
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| {{IPA|ⁿd͡z}} |
| {{IPA|ⁿd͡z}} |
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|{{IPA|ⁿd͡ʒ}} |
| {{IPA|ⁿd͡ʒ}} |
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| |
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| {{IPA|ᵑg}} |
| {{IPA|ᵑg}} |
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| |
| |
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|- |
|- |
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! colspan="2" | [[Fricative]] |
! colspan="2" | [[Fricative]] |
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| {{IPA link|f}} |
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| |
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|{{IPA link|f}} |
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| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|s}} |
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|s}} |
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|{{IPA link|ʃ}} |
| {{IPA link|ʃ}} |
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| |
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| |
| |
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| {{IPA link|h}} |
| {{IPA link|h}} |
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Line 213: | Line 80: | ||
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] |
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] |
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| {{IPA link|m}} |
| {{IPA link|m}} |
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| |
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| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|n}} |
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|n}} |
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| |
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| {{IPA link|ɲ}} |
| {{IPA link|ɲ}} |
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| |
| |
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Line 221: | Line 86: | ||
|- |
|- |
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! colspan="2" | [[Approximant]] |
! colspan="2" | [[Approximant]] |
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| {{IPA link|ʋ}} |
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| |
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|{{IPA link|ʋ}} |
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| colspan="2" | |
| colspan="2" | |
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| |
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| {{IPA link|j}} |
| {{IPA link|j}} |
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| {{IPA link|ɰ}} |
| {{IPA link|ɰ}} |
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Line 230: | Line 93: | ||
|- |
|- |
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! colspan="2" | [[Tap consonant|Tap]] |
! colspan="2" | [[Tap consonant|Tap]] |
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| |
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| |
| |
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| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|ɾ}} |
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|ɾ}} |
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| |
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| |
| |
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| |
| |
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Line 268: | Line 129: | ||
When vowels appear adjacent to one another, they either become a diphthong (for the pairs listed above) or a glide is inserted if a diphthong does not exist for that pair. For example: |
When vowels appear adjacent to one another, they either become a diphthong (for the pairs listed above) or a glide is inserted if a diphthong does not exist for that pair. For example: |
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{{interlinear|number=(1)|glossing3=yes |
{{interlinear |
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| number = (1) |
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| glossing3 = yes |
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| italics1 = no|/ho.ʋaʔ.kã.o/|[ho.ʋaʔ.kãõ]|DIST{{=}}SIM{{=}}AUG|'exactly like that'<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" />{{rp|5}} |
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|/ho.ʋaʔ.kã.o/ |
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}} |
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|[ho.ʋaʔ.kãõ] |
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|DIST-CMP-AUG |
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|'exactly like that{{hamza}}}} |
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{{interlinear|number=(2)|glossing3=yes |
{{interlinear |
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| number = (2) |
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| glossing3 = yes |
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| italics1 = no|/ɲo.tsʰi.a/|[ɲõ.tsʰia]|good{{=}}QUAL{{=}}ADJR|'good'<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" />{{rp|4}} |
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|/ɲo.tsʰi.a/ |
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}} |
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|[ɲõ.tshi.ja] |
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|good-ADJ-ADN |
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|'good{{hamza}}}} |
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Note that the vowel pair /ae/ is realized as [ai]. |
Note that the vowel pair /ae/ is realized as [ai]. |
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Triphthongs do not exist in A{{hamza}}ingae, and glottal stops are inserted phonemically when a sequence of three vowels would occur as in example (1) below.<ref name=" |
Triphthongs do not exist in A{{hamza}}ingae, and glottal stops are inserted phonemically when a sequence of three vowels would occur as in example (1) below.<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" /> |
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{{interlinear|number=(3)|glossing3=yes |
{{interlinear |
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| number = (3) |
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| glossing3 = yes |
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| italics1 = no|/ᵐbia.a/|[bi̯a.ʔa]|(long{{=}}ADJR)|'long'<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" />{{rp|4}} |
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|/ᵐbia.a/ |
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}} |
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|[bi̯a.ʔa] |
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|(long-ADN) |
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|'long{{hamza}}}} |
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=== Nasalization === |
=== Nasalization === |
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Nasalization is a major feature of the A{{hamza}}ingae sound system. As already seen, there are contrastive prenasalized consonants as well as contrastive nasal counterparts to all monophthongs and diphthongs. Example (4) below demonstrates their contrasting nature: |
Nasalization is a major feature of the A{{hamza}}ingae sound system. As already seen, there are contrastive prenasalized consonants as well as contrastive nasal counterparts to all monophthongs and diphthongs. Example (4) below demonstrates their contrasting nature: |
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:: (4a) /hi/ <math>\rightarrow</math> [hi] |
:: (4a) /hi/ <math>\rightarrow</math> [hi] {{gloss|to come}} |
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:: (4b) /hĩ/ <math>\rightarrow</math> [hĩ] |
:: (4b) /hĩ/ <math>\rightarrow</math> [hĩ] {{gloss|to exist}} |
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Along with being contrastive, nasalization also plays a key phonological role in the surface realization of morphemes, working both backwards and forwards. The consonants /p/, /t/, /ʋ/, and /j/ all become nasalized when following a nasal vowel, becoming /ᵐb/, /ⁿd/, /m/, and /ɲ/, respectively, as in examples (5) and (6). |
Along with being contrastive, nasalization also plays a key phonological role in the surface realization of morphemes, working both backwards and forwards. The consonants /p/, /t/, /ʋ/, and /j/ all become nasalized when following a nasal vowel, becoming /ᵐb/, /ⁿd/, /m/, and /ɲ/, respectively, as in examples (5) and (6). |
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:: (5a) /ha-pa/ <math>\rightarrow</math> [ha.pa] (go-SS) |
:: (5a) /ha-pa/ <math>\rightarrow</math> [ha.pa] (go-{{gcl|SS}}) {{gloss|to go}} |
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:: (5b) /hẽ-pa/ <math>\rightarrow</math> [hẽ.ᵐba] (sound-SS) |
:: (5b) /hẽ-pa/ <math>\rightarrow</math> [hẽ.ᵐba] (sound-{{gcl|SS}}) {{gloss|to sound}} |
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:: (6a) /hi-ʔja/ <math>\rightarrow</math> [hiʔ.ja] (come-VER) |
:: (6a) /hi-ʔja/ <math>\rightarrow</math> [hiʔ.ja] (come-{{gcl|VER}}) {{gloss|does come}} |
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:: (6b) /hĩ-ʔja/ <math>\rightarrow</math> [hĩʔ.ɲã] (exist-VER) |
:: (6b) /hĩ-ʔja/ <math>\rightarrow</math> [hĩʔ.ɲã] (exist-{{gcl|VER}}) {{gloss|does exist}} |
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Note that nasalization of vowels can cross consonant boundaries when the vowels are separated by a glottal fricative /h/ or glottal stop /ʔ/ (even when a glide is present) as in example (*) above and example (7) below:<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" /> |
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:: (7a) /tsɨi-ʔhe/ <math>\rightarrow</math> [tsɨiʔ.he] (walk-{{gcl|IPFV}}) {{gloss|walking}} |
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:: (7b) /tsõ-ʔhe/ <math>\rightarrow</math> [tsõʔ.hẽ] (do-{{gcl|IPFV}}) {{gloss|doing}} |
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Additionally, oral vowels become nasalized when preceding prenasalized consonants and when following nasal consonants. |
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:: (8) /dɨ.ʃo.ⁿde.kʰɨ/ <math>\rightarrow</math> [dɨ.ʃõ.ⁿde.kʰɨ] (child={{gcl|HUM}}.{{gcl|PL}}) {{gloss|children}}<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" />{{rp|4}} |
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Note that nasalization of vowels can cross consonant boundaries when the vowels are separated by a glottal fricative /h/ or glottal stop /ʔ/ (even when a glide is present) as in example (*) above and example (7) below:<ref name=":5" /> |
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:: (9) /ɲoɲa.pa/ <math>\rightarrow</math> [ɲõɲã.ᵐba] (make={{gcl|SS}}) {{gloss|make}}<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" />{{rp|5}} |
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They also become nasalized when either preceded or followed by a nasal vowel, as in examples (10) and (11). |
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:: (7a) /tsɨi-ʔhe/ <math>\rightarrow</math> [tsɨiʔ.he] (walk-IPFV) 'walking'} |
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:: (7b) /tsõ-ʔhe/ <math>\rightarrow</math> [tsõʔ.hẽ] (do-IPFV) 'doing' |
|||
:: (10) /ho.ʋaʔ.kã.o/ <math>\rightarrow</math> [ho.ʋaʔ.kãõ] ({{gcl|DIST}}={{gcl|SIM|similative}}={{gcl|AUG}}) {{gloss|exactly like that}}<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" />{{rp|4}} |
|||
Additionally, oral vowels become nasalized when preceding prenasalized consonants and when following nasal consonants, as in examples (8) and (9). They also become nasalized when either preceded or followed by a nasal vowel, as in examples (10) and (11). |
|||
=== Syllable structure === |
|||
:: (8) /dɨ.ʃo-ⁿde.kʰɨ/ <math>\rightarrow</math> [dɨ.ʃõ.ⁿde.kʰɨ] (child-PLH) 'children' |
|||
A{{hamza}}ingae syllable structure is (C)V(ʔ),<ref name=":6" /> with many variations thereof. At minimum a syllable can be a singular vowel and at maximum can be consonant onset with a diphthong nucleus and glottal stop coda.<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" /> Note that vowel length is not a relevant feature in syllable structure. A complete list of the structures allowed is given in the table below with examples for each.<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" /> |
|||
:: (9) /ɲoɲa-pa/ <math>\rightarrow</math> [ɲõɲã.ᵐba] (make-SS) 'make{{hamza}} |
|||
:: (10) /ho.ʋaʔ-kã-o/ <math>\rightarrow</math> [ho.ʋaʔ.kãõ] (DIST-CMP-AUG) 'exactly like that' |
|||
:: (11) /bɨtʰo-ĩ/ <math>\rightarrow</math> [bɨtʰõĩ] (run-MVM) 'run' |
|||
=== Syllable Structure === |
|||
A{{hamza}}ingae syllable structure is (C)V(ʔ),<ref name=":6" /> with many variations thereof. At minimum a syllable can be a singular vowel and at maximum can be consonant onset with a diphthong nucleus and glottal stop coda.<ref name=":5" /> Note that vowel length is not a relevant feature in syllable structure. A complete list of the structures allowed is given in the table below with examples for each.<ref name=":5" /> |
|||
{| class="wikitable" |
{| class="wikitable" |
||
|V |
|V |
||
|['''a'''.ʔi] |
|{{IPA|['''a'''.ʔi]}} |
||
|{{gloss|person}} |
|||
|- |
|- |
||
|VV |
|VV |
||
|['''ãĩ'''] |
|{{IPA|['''ãĩ''']}} |
||
|{{gloss|dog}} |
|||
|- |
|- |
||
|CV |
|CV |
||
|['''tʃã'''] |
|{{IPA|['''tʃã''']}} |
||
|{{gloss|mother}} |
|||
|- |
|- |
||
|CVV |
|CVV |
||
|['''kʰoa'''] |
|{{IPA|['''kʰoa''']}} |
||
|{{gloss|pumpkin}} |
|||
|- |
|- |
||
|Vʔ |
|Vʔ |
||
|['''iʔ'''.fa] |
|{{IPA|['''iʔ'''.fa]}} |
||
|{{gloss|we/they/you all bring}} |
|||
|- |
|- |
||
|VVʔ |
|VVʔ |
||
|['''aiʔ'''.ʋo] |
|{{IPA|['''aiʔ'''.ʋo]}} |
||
|{{gloss|body}} |
|||
|- |
|- |
||
|CVʔ |
|CVʔ |
||
|['''paʔ'''.tʃo] |
|{{IPA|['''paʔ'''.tʃo]}} |
||
|{{gloss|dead}} |
|||
|- |
|- |
||
|CVVʔ |
|CVVʔ |
||
|[d'''ʒaiʔ'''.tʃo] |
|{{IPA|[d'''ʒaiʔ'''.tʃo]}} |
||
|{{gloss|chair}} |
|||
|} |
|} |
||
Line 346: | Line 218: | ||
Generally speaking, in the absence of a glottal stop, stress in A{{hamza}}ingae is found on the penultimate syllable as in examples (12a) and (12b). When a glottal stop is present however, stress is found on the syllable with the second mora before the glottal stop (Dąbkowski, 2020), compare examples (13a) and (13b). This is a stress pattern that is currently cross-linguistically unattested. |
Generally speaking, in the absence of a glottal stop, stress in A{{hamza}}ingae is found on the penultimate syllable as in examples (12a) and (12b). When a glottal stop is present however, stress is found on the syllable with the second mora before the glottal stop (Dąbkowski, 2020), compare examples (13a) and (13b). This is a stress pattern that is currently cross-linguistically unattested. |
||
:: (12a) [ˈfe.tʰa] |
:: (12a) [ˈfe.tʰa] 'open' |
||
:: (12b) [fe.ˈtʰa.hi] |
:: (12b) [fe.ˈtʰa.hi] 'open-{{gcl|PRCM|preculminative}}'{{what|date=June 2022}} |
||
:: (13a) [ˈfe.tʰa.ʔhe] |
:: (13a) [ˈfe.tʰa.ʔhe] 'open-{{gcl|IPFV}}' |
||
:: (13b) [fɨn.ˈdɨi.ʔhe] |
:: (13b) [fɨn.ˈdɨi.ʔhe] 'sweep-{{gcl|IPFV}}' |
||
Stress can in some cases be contrastive, compare (14a) and (14b). |
Stress can in some cases be contrastive, compare (14a) and (14b). |
||
:: (14a) [ˈnẽ.pi] |
:: (14a) [ˈnẽ.pi] {{gloss|disappear}}<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" />{{rp|7}} |
||
:: (14b) [nẽ.ˈpi] |
:: (14b) [nẽ.ˈpi] {{gloss|arrive}}<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" />{{rp|7}} |
||
== Morphology == |
== Morphology == |
||
Morphology in A |
Morphology in A{{hamza}}ingae consists of stems, clitics, and suffixes.<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" /> Free stems include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbials, and meteorological stems (such as words for "wind", "rain", and "sun"). |
||
{{interlinear |
{{interlinear |
||
| indent = 3|tse{{=}}tsû thesi na’sû{{=}}ma da|{{gcl|ANA.LOC|anaphoric reference to location or time}}{{=}}3 tiger chief{{=}}ACC.REAL become|‘Then the tiger became the chief.’ |
|||
|Tsetsû thesi na'sûma da |
|||
<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" />{{rp|17}} |
|||
|tse{{=}}tsû thesi na'sû{{=}}ma da |
|||
}} |
|||
|ANA.LOC{{=}}3 tiger chief{{=}}ACC1 become |
|||
|"Then the tiger became the chief."<ref name=":5" />}} |
|||
{{interlinear |
{{interlinear |
||
| indent = 3|tsa sinjûnkhû rande tsampi sepakhue-fa|ANA valley big forest behind-CLF:lateral|‘that big valley behind the forest’ (elic.) |
|||
|Tsa sinjûnkhû rande tsampi sepakhuefa |
|||
<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" />{{rp|21}} |
|||
|tsa sinjûnkhû rande tsampi sepakhue{{=}}fa |
|||
}} |
|||
|ANA valley big forest behind{{=}}SH.LAT |
|||
|"that big valley behind the forest"<ref name=":5" />}} |
|||
{{interlinear |
{{interlinear |
||
| indent = 3|ji{{=}}pa ana a’ta|come{{=}}SS sleep day|‘After coming (he) slept and dawned (i.e., got up at dawn).’ |
|||
|Jipa ana a'ta |
|||
<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" />{{rp|14}} |
|||
|ji{{=}}pa ana a'ta |
|||
}} |
|||
|come{{=}}SS sleep day |
|||
|"After coming (he) slept and dawned ({{=}}got up at dawn)"<ref name=":5" />}} |
|||
While many stems are free, there are also a number of bound stems, which typically express states of being or properties, and are in a class of "flexible stems" by themselves. In the following sentence, ''bia'' "long" is one of these bound stems. |
While many stems are free, there are also a number of bound stems, which typically express states of being or properties, and are in a class of "flexible stems" by themselves. In the following sentence, ''bia'' "long" is one of these bound stems. |
||
{{interlinear |
{{interlinear |
||
| indent = 3|tutu-fa-’khu{{=}}ve{{=}}tsû bia-ña{{=}}’fa{{=}}’ya|white-CLF:lateral{{=}}AUG{{=}}ACC.IRR{{=}}3 long-CAUS{{=}}SBJ.PL{{=}}ASS|‘They lengthened (the cotton) into white rope.’ |
|||
|Tutufa'khuvetsû biaña'fa'ya |
|||
<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" />{{rp|9}} |
|||
|tutu{{=}}fa{{=}}'khu{{=}}ve{{=}}tsû bia-ña{{=}}'fa{{=}}'ya |
|||
}} |
|||
|white{{=}}SH.LAT{{=}}SH.ANG{{=}}ACC2{{=}}3 long-CAUS{{=}}PLS{{=}}VER |
|||
|"They lengthened (the cotton) into white rope."<ref name=":5" />}} |
|||
Beyond stems, A |
Beyond stems, A{{hamza}}ingae has both bound suffixes and [[clitic]]s, specifically enclitics that appear after the stem. There are no known prefixes or proclitics. In glossed content, suffixes are typically notated with a hyphen, and clitics are notated with an equal sign. The language has a very rich inventory of clitics, that can appear either at sentence level or constituent level. Sentence-level clitics occur at second position, meaning they attach to the end of the first word in a sentence, and mark qualities such as subject and sentence type. |
||
{{interlinear |
{{interlinear |
||
| indent = 3|atesû{{=}}ti{{=}}ki ke{{=}}ja Secoya a’i{{=}}ma|know{{=}}INT{{=}}2 2.SG{{=}}CNTR.TOP Secoya person{{=}}ACC.REAL|‘Do you know Secoya people?’ |
|||
|Atesûtiki keja Secoya a'ima |
|||
<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" />{{rp|10}} |
|||
|atesû{{=}}ti{{=}}ki ke{{=}}ja Secoya a'i{{=}}ma |
|||
}} |
|||
|know{{=}}INT{{=}}2 2.SG{{=}}CNTR Secoya person{{=}}ACC1 |
|||
|"Do you know Secoya people?"<ref name=":5" />}} |
|||
Constituent-level clitics can either attach to the noun phrase or subordinate clause, or to the predicate clause. Clitics in the noun phrase occur in a fixed order, and can mark case, negation, and other grammatical features. |
Constituent-level clitics can either attach to the noun phrase or subordinate clause, or to the predicate clause. Clitics in the noun phrase occur in a fixed order, and can mark case, negation, and other grammatical features. |
||
{{interlinear |
{{interlinear |
||
| indent = 3|jingesû ja-ye tsa a’i cerveza{{=}}ma chava-en-je{{=}}ni|HORT go-INF ANA person beer{{=}}ACC.REAL buy-CAUS-IPFV{{=}}LOC|‘Let’s go to where that man is selling beer.’ (elic.) |
|||
|Jingesû jaye tsa a'i cervezama chavaenjeni |
|||
<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" />{{rp|11}} |
|||
|jingesû ja-ye tsa a'i cerveza{{=}}ma chava-en-je{{=}}ni |
|||
}} |
|||
|HORT2 go-INF ANA person beer{{=}}ACC1 buy-CAUS-IPFV{{=}}LOC |
|||
|"Let's go to where that man is selling beer."<ref name=":5" />}} |
|||
{{interlinear |
{{interlinear |
||
| indent = 3|juva ña dû’shû{{=}}ndekhû{{=}}’sû dû’shû|DIST 1.SG child{{=}}HUM.PL{{=}}ATTR child|‘those children of my children’ |
|||
|Juva ña dû'shûndekhû'sû dûshû |
|||
<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" />{{rp|10}} |
|||
|juva ña dû'shû{{=}}ndekhû{{=}}'sû dû'shû |
|||
}} |
|||
|DIST 1.SG child{{=}}PLH{{=}}ATTR child |
|||
|"those children of my children"<ref name=":5" />}} |
|||
Suffixes also mark certain grammatical features. Some example include sentential type/mood, nominalization, and aspect. Passive, causative, and shape features are also indicated with suffixes. |
Suffixes also mark certain grammatical features. Some example include sentential type/mood, nominalization, and aspect. Passive, causative, and shape features are also indicated with suffixes. |
||
{{interlinear |
{{interlinear |
||
| indent = 3|jungue{{=}}sû{{=}}ma{{=}}tsû ñua’me tsetse’pa{{=}}ve tsetse’pa-en-ñe atesû{{=}}’fa|IGNR2{{=}}ATTR{{=}}ACC.REAL{{=}}3 really chicha{{=}}ACC.IRR chicha-CAUS-INF HAB.AUX{{=}}SBJ.PL|‘What did they use to make chicha with?’ |
|||
|Jungaesûmatsû ñua'me tsetse'pave tsetse'paeñe atseû'fa |
|||
<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" />{{rp|29}} |
|||
|jungaesû{{=}}ma{{=}}tsû ñua'me tsetse'pa{{=}}ve tsetse'pa-en-ñe atesû{{=}}'fa |
|||
}} |
|||
|what{{=}}ACC1{{=}}3 really chicha{{=}}ACC2 chicha-CAUS-INF know{{=}}PLS |
|||
|"What did they use to make chicha with?"<ref name=":5" />}} |
|||
Also present in the language is the process of reduplication, which expresses iterative aspect. |
Also present in the language is the process of reduplication, which expresses iterative aspect. |
||
{{interlinear|indent=3|glossing3=yes |
{{interlinear |
||
| indent = 3 |
|||
| glossing3 = yes |
|||
| italics1 = no|Tsunsi chapejuen akesi kikhûkhûpa|tsun{{=}}si chape{{=}}ju{{=}}en ake{{=}}si kikhû~khû{{=}}pa|do{{=}}DS soften{{=}}SH.SFC{{=}}ADV warm.up{{=}}DS hurl~ITER{{=}}SS|"Then they cook and when they're warmed up, we crush them."<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=A{{hamza}}ingae Language Documentation Project|url=https://cofan-aldp.github.io/LingView/#/|access-date=2021-11-15|website=cofan-aldp.github.io}}</ref> |
|||
|Tsunsi chapejuen akesi kikhûkhûpa |
|||
}} |
|||
|tsun{{=}}si chape{{=}}ju{{=}}en ake{{=}}si kikhû~khû{{=}}pa |
|||
|do{{=}}DS soften{{=}}SH.SFC{{=}}ADV warm.up{{=}}DS hurl~ITER{{=}}SS |
|||
|"Then they cook and when they're warmed up, we crush them."<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=A'ingae Language Documentation Project|url=https://cofan-aldp.github.io/LingView/#/|access-date=2021-11-15|website=cofan-aldp.github.io}}</ref>}} |
|||
=== Inflectional |
=== Inflectional template === |
||
Clitics and suffixes in the language have a relatively fixed order of how they will attach to a verb or predicate phrase.<ref name="Dąbkowski">{{Cite journal |last=Dąbkowski |first=Maksymilian |date=2021 |title=Dominance is non-representational: evidence from A{{hamza}}ingae verbal stress |journal=Phonology |language=en |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=611–650 |doi=10.1017/S0952675721000348 |s2cid=246999014 |issn=0952-6757|doi-access=free }}</ref> |
|||
[[File:Inflectional Template of the A'ingae Verb.png|thumb|Inflectional template of the A'ingae verb]] |
|||
Clitics and suffixes in the language have a relatively fixed order of how they will attach to a verb or predicate phrase<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dąbkowski |first=Maksymilian |date=2021 |title=Dominance is non-representational: evidence from A'ingae verbal stress |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/phonology/article/dominance-is-nonrepresentational-evidence-from-aingae-verbal-stress/32870910ED08460CE2BA7C1576DDFE37 |journal=Phonology |language=en |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=611–650 |doi=10.1017/S0952675721000348 |issn=0952-6757}}</ref>. |
|||
{| class="wikitable" |
|||
|+ Inflection template of the A{{hamza}}ingae verb<ref name="Dąbkowski" /> |
|||
| colspan="2" | causative |
|||
| {{lang|con|-ɲa}} ({{gcl|CAUS}}) |
|||
|- |
|||
| colspan="2" | reciprocal |
|||
| {{lang|con|-kʰo<sup>∅</sup>}} ({{gcl|RECP}}) |
|||
|- |
|||
| colspan="2" | passive |
|||
| {{lang|con|-je<sup>∅</sup>}} ({{gcl|PASS}}) |
|||
|- |
|||
| colspan="2" | aspect |
|||
| {{cslist |
|||
|{{lang|con|-ʔhe<sup>∅</sup>}} ({{gcl|IPFV}}) |
|||
|{{lang|con|-hi}} ({{gcl|PRCM|precumulative}}) |
|||
|{{lang|con|-kʰa<sup>∅</sup>}} ({{gcl|PAUC|verbal paucal}}) |
|||
|{{lang|con|-ʔɲakʰa<sup>∅</sup>}} ({{gcl|SMFC|semelfactive}}) |
|||
}} |
|||
|- |
|||
| colspan="2" | associated motion |
|||
| {{cslist |
|||
|{{lang|con|-ʔᵑgi<sup>∅</sup>}} ({{gcl|VEN|venitive}}) |
|||
|{{lang|con|-ʔᵑga<sup>∅</sup>}} ({{gcl|AND|andative}}) |
|||
}} |
|||
|- |
|||
| colspan="2" | subject number |
|||
| {{lang|con|-ʔfa}} ({{gcl|PLS|plural subject}}) |
|||
|- |
|||
| colspan="2" | reality |
|||
| {{lang|con|-ja}} ({{gcl|IRR}}) |
|||
|- |
|||
| colspan="2" | polarity |
|||
| {{lang|con|-ᵐbi}} ({{gcl|NEG}}) |
|||
|- |
|||
| rowspan="3" {{vert header|va=middle|clause type}} |
|||
| subordinate |
|||
| {{cslist |
|||
|{{lang|con|-je}} ({{gcl|INF}}) |
|||
|{{lang|con|-saʔne}} ({{gcl|APPR}}) |
|||
|{{lang|con|-ʔni}} ({{gcl|LOC}}) |
|||
|{{lang|con|-ʔma}} ({{gcl|FRST|frustrative}}) |
|||
}} |
|||
|- |
|||
| cosubordinate |
|||
| {{cslist |
|||
|{{lang|con|-pa}} ({{gcl|SS|same subject}}) |
|||
|{{lang|con|-si}} ({{gcl|DS|different subject}}) |
|||
}} |
|||
|- |
|||
| matrix |
|||
| {{cslist |
|||
|{{lang|con|-ha}} ({{gcl|IMP}}) |
|||
|{{lang|con|-kʰa<sup>∅</sup>}} ({{gcl|IMP2|imperative 2}}) |
|||
|{{lang|con|-ʔse}} ({{gcl|IMP3|imperative 3}}) |
|||
|{{lang|con|-hama<sup>∅</sup>}} ({{gcl|PROH}}) |
|||
|{{lang|con|-ʔja}} ({{gcl|VER|veridical}}) |
|||
}} |
|||
|- |
|||
| colspan="2" | information structure |
|||
| {{cslist |
|||
|{{lang|con|-ʔta}} ({{gcl|NEW|new topic}}) |
|||
|{{lang|con|-ʔkʰe}} ({{gcl|ADD|additive}}) |
|||
|{{lang|con|-ʔha}} ({{gcl|CNTR|contrastive topic}}) |
|||
}} |
|||
|- |
|||
| colspan="2" | sentence-level |
|||
| {{cslist |
|||
|{{lang|con|{{=}}te}} ({{gcl|RPRT|reportative}}) |
|||
|{{lang|con|{{=}}ti}} ({{gcl|YNQ|polar interrogative}}) |
|||
}} |
|||
|- |
|||
| colspan="2" | subject person |
|||
| {{cslist |
|||
|{{lang|con|{{=}}ᵑgi}} ({{gcl|1}}) |
|||
|{{lang|con|{{=}}ki}} ({{gcl|2}}) |
|||
|{{lang|con|{{=}}tsɨ}} ({{gcl|3}}) |
|||
|{{lang|con|{{=}}ke}} ({{sc|?}}) |
|||
}} |
|||
|} |
|||
=== Pronouns === |
=== Pronouns === |
||
Line 458: | Line 401: | ||
== Syntax == |
== Syntax == |
||
Constituent order in matrix clauses in A |
Constituent order in matrix clauses in A{{hamza}}ingae is relatively flexible, with SOV (or SO-predicate) considered basic.<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" /> In embedded clauses, word order is more rigidly SOV/SOPred. Clauses must minimally consist of a predicate. |
||
{{interlinear |
{{interlinear |
||
| indent = 3|a’i mani{{=}}ma isû|person peanut{{=}}ACC take|‘The people took the peanuts.’ |
|||
|A'i manima isû |
|||
<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" />{{rp|40}} |
|||
|a'i mani{{=}}ma isû |
|||
}} |
|||
|person peanut{{=}}ACC take |
|||
|"The people took the peanuts"<ref name=":5" />}} |
|||
{{interlinear |
{{interlinear |
||
| indent = 3|amûnde{{=}}tshi{{=}}ve tsun{{=}}’fa{{=}}ya|dirty-QUAL{{=}}ACC.IRR do{{=}}SBJ.PL{{=}}IRR|‘We’ll make it dirty.’ |
|||
|Amûndetshive tsun'faya |
|||
<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" />{{rp|25}} |
|||
|amûnde{{=}}tshi{{=}}ve tsun{{=}}'fa{{=}}ya |
|||
}} |
|||
|dirty{{=}}ADJ{{=}}ACC2 do{{=}}PLS{{=}}IRR |
|||
|"We'll make it dirty"<ref name=":5" />}} |
|||
{{interlinear |
{{interlinear |
||
| indent = 3|chava{{=}}ngi fûesû simba-’khu{{=}}ma|buy{{=}}1 OTHER fishing-CL:angular{{=}}ACC.REAL|‘I bought a different fishing hook.’ (elic.) |
|||
|Chavangi fûesû simba'khuma |
|||
<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" />{{rp|23}} |
|||
|chava{{=}}ngi fûesû simba'khu{{=}}ma |
|||
}} |
|||
|buy{{=}}1 other fishing.hook{{=}}ACC1 |
|||
|"I bought a different fishing hook."<ref name=":5" />}} |
|||
{{interlinear |
{{interlinear |
||
| indent = 3|kanjen|stay|‘He stayed’ |
|||
|Kanjen |
|||
<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" />{{rp|38}} |
|||
|kanjen |
|||
}} |
|||
|stay |
|||
|"He stayed."<ref name=":5" />}} |
|||
Subordinate clauses are strictly predicate-final. |
Subordinate clauses are strictly predicate-final. |
||
{{interlinear |
{{interlinear |
||
| indent = 3|ña{{=}}ja asithaen{{=}}ngi [kinikhu{{=}}ve da-ye]|I{{=}}{{gcl|CNTR.TOP|contrastive topic}} think{{=}}1 tree{{=}}ACC.IRR become-INF|‘I think I’ll become a tree.’ |
|||
|Ñaja asithaengi kinikhuve daye |
|||
<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" />{{rp|44}} |
|||
|ña{{=}}ja asithaen{{=}}ngi [kinikhu{{=}}ve da-ye] |
|||
}} |
|||
|I{{=}}CNTR think{{=}}1 tree-ACC2 become-INF |
|||
|"I think I'll become a tree."<ref name=":5" />}} |
|||
=== Case and |
=== Case and alignment === |
||
Case markers are constituent-level clitics.<ref name=" |
Case markers are constituent-level clitics.<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" /> |
||
{{interlinear |
{{interlinear |
||
| indent = 3|tayupi{{=}}ja charapa dû’sûchu{{=}}ve kaje{{=}}ni ja-je{{=}}’fa{{=}}’ya|former{{=}}{{gcl|CNTR.TOP|contrastive topic}} charapa.turtle egg{{=}}ACC.IRR downriver{{=}}LOC go-IPFV{{=}}PL{{=}}ASS|‘In earlier times they used to go downriver for charapa eggs.’ |
|||
|Tayupija charapa dû'sûchuve kajeni jaje'fa'ya |
|||
<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" />{{rp|35}} |
|||
|tayupi{{=}}ja charapa dû'sûche{{=}}ve kaje{{=}}ni ja-je{{=}}'fa{{=}}'ya |
|||
}} |
|||
|former{{=}}CNTR charapa.turtle egg{{=}}ACC2 downriver{{=}}LOC go-IPFV{{=}}PLS{{=}}VER |
|||
|"In earlier times they used to go downriver for charapa eggs."<ref name=":5" />}} |
|||
The full list of case markers is shown below. |
The full list of case markers is shown below. |
||
{| class="wikitable" |
{| class="wikitable" |
||
|- |
|||
|=''ma'' |
|||
|{{lang|con|{{=}}ma}} |
|||
|ACC1 |
|ACC1 |
||
|[[Accusative case|accusative]] 1 |
|[[Accusative case|accusative]] 1 |
||
|- |
|- |
||
|= |
|{{lang|con|{{=}}ve/{{=}}me}} |
||
|ACC2 |
|ACC2 |
||
|accusative 2 |
|accusative 2 |
||
|- |
|- |
||
|= |
|{{lang|con|{{=}}mbe}} |
||
|BEN |
|BEN |
||
|[[Benefactive case|benefactive]] |
|[[Benefactive case|benefactive]] |
||
|- |
|- |
||
|= |
|{{lang|con|{{=}}i'khû}} |
||
|INST |
|INST |
||
|[[Instrumental case|instrument]] |
|[[Instrumental case|instrument]] |
||
|- |
|- |
||
|{{lang|con|{{=}}pi}} |
|||
|=''pi'' |
|||
|LIM |
|LIM |
||
|limitative |
|limitative |
||
|- |
|- |
||
|{{lang|con|{{=}}ni}} |
|||
|=''ni'' |
|||
|LOC |
|LOC |
||
|[[Locative case|locative]] |
|[[Locative case|locative]] |
||
|- |
|- |
||
|= |
|{{lang|con|{{=}}ngae}} |
||
|MANN |
|MANN |
||
|manner, path |
|manner, path |
||
|- |
|- |
||
|{{lang|con|{{=}}ne}} |
|||
|=''ne'' |
|||
|ABL |
|ABL |
||
|[[Ablative case|ablative]] |
|[[Ablative case|ablative]] |
||
|- |
|- |
||
|=nga |
|{{lang|con|{{=}}nga}} |
||
|DAT |
|DAT |
||
|[[Dative case|dative]] |
|[[Dative case|dative]] |
||
|- |
|- |
||
|=ye / =ñe |
|{{lang|con|{{=}}ye / {{=}}ñe}} |
||
|ELAT |
|ELAT |
||
|[[Elative case|elative]] |
|[[Elative case|elative]] |
||
|} |
|} |
||
Note that there are two accusative case markers. Accusative 2 typically is used in negative sentences or when the P-argument is not yet present or does not exist, in contexts of expressing desire, causation, or creation. |
Note that there are two accusative case markers. Accusative 2 typically is used in negative sentences or when the P-argument is not yet present or does not exist, in contexts of expressing desire, causation, or creation. |
||
Sentences follow a nominative-accusative pattern. A |
Sentences follow a nominative-accusative pattern. A{{hamza}}ingae displays optional agreement—optional agreement in person using second position clitics, and optional agreement in number using the clitic ='''fa''--both of which agree with the subject argument. Within the noun phrase, there is no agreement. |
||
=== Sentence |
=== Sentence type === |
||
A |
A{{hamza}}ingae distinguishes between several different sentence types.<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" /> These distinctions are indicated using different morphosyntactic strategies. Declarative sentences can contain the optional veridical clitic {{lang|con|{{=}}'ya}}. There are several imperative types, depending on what speech act is being performed, using either the imperative clitics {{lang|con|{{=}}ja}} or {{lang|con|{{=}}'se}} or the diminutive suffix {{lang|con|{{=}}'kha}}. There is a distinction between yes/no interrogative and content interrogative sentences, with the former using the interrogative clitic {{lang|con|{{=}}ti}} and the latter using the indeterminate/interrogative wh-word in the initial position ({{lang|con|jungaesû}} ("what"), {{lang|con|maki}} ("when"), {{lang|con|mani}} ("where"), {{lang|con|majan}} ("which"), {{lang|con|mikun}} ("why"), {{lang|con|mingae}} ("how")). Exhortative sentences use the hortative particle {{lang|con|jinge}}. Prohibitive sentences use the clitic {{lang|con|{{=}}jama}}. Below are some examples of these sentence types. |
||
==== Assertive/Declarative ==== |
==== Assertive/Declarative ==== |
||
{{interlinear|indent=3|glossing3=yes |
{{interlinear |
||
| indent = 3 |
|||
| glossing3 = yes |
|||
| italics1 = no|Tsumbate tsa tisema se'jepa|tsun{{=}}pa{{=}}te tsa tise{{=}}ma se'je{{=}}pa|do{{=}}SS{{=}}RPRT ANA 3.SG{{=}}ACC cure{{=}}SS|"They cured him"<ref name=":3" /> |
|||
|Tsumbate tsa tisema se'jepa |
|||
}} |
|||
|tsun{{=}}pa{{=}}te tsa tise{{=}}ma se'je{{=}}pa |
|||
|do{{=}}SS{{=}}RPRT ANA 3.SG{{=}}ACC cure{{=}}SS |
|||
|"They cured him"<ref name=":3" />}} |
|||
{{interlinear |
{{interlinear |
||
| indent = 3|setsa{{=}}ne{{=}}ta{{=}}tsû ji{{=}}’fa{{=}}’ya|low{{=}}ABL{{=}}{{gcl|NEW.TOP|new topic}}{{=}}3 come{{=}}SBJ.PL{{=}}ASS|‘They came from downriver.’ |
|||
|Setsanetatsû ji'fa'ya |
|||
<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" />{{rp|13}} |
|||
|setsa{{=}}ne{{=}}ta{{=}}tsû ji{{=}}'fa{{=}}'ya |
|||
}} |
|||
|low{{=}}ABL{{=}}NEW{{=}}3 come{{=}}PLS{{=}}VER |
|||
|"They came from down river"<ref name=":5" />}} |
|||
==== Imperative ==== |
==== Imperative ==== |
||
{{interlinear |
{{interlinear |
||
| indent = 3|tsa{{=}}’ka{{=}}en tsun{{=}}ja|ANA{{=}}SIM{{=}}ADVR do{{=}}IMP|‘Do it like that!’ |
|||
|Tsa'kaen tsunja |
|||
<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" />{{rp|41}} |
|||
|tsa{{=}}'ka{{=}}en tsun{{=}}ja |
|||
}} |
|||
|ANA{{=}}CMP{{=}}ADV do{{=}}IMP |
|||
|"Do it like that!"<ref name=":5" />}} |
|||
{{interlinear|indent=3|glossing3=yes |
{{interlinear |
||
| indent = 3 |
|||
| glossing3 = yes |
|||
| italics1 = no|Me'in kanse|me'in kan{{=}}'se|no look{{=}}IMP3|"Don't look (you shouldn't look)"<ref name=":3" /> |
|||
|Me'in kanse |
|||
}} |
|||
|me'in kan{{=}}'se |
|||
|no look{{=}}IMP3 |
|||
|"Don't look (you shouldn't look)"<ref name=":3" />}} |
|||
{{interlinear |
{{interlinear |
||
| indent = 3|injan{{=}}’fa{{=}}kha|think{{=}}PL{{=}}DIM|‘Mind you!/Be careful!’ |
|||
|Injan'fakha |
|||
<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" />{{rp|41}} |
|||
|injan{{=}}'fa{{=}}kha |
|||
}} |
|||
|think{{=}}PLS{{=}}DMN |
|||
|"Mind you!/Just be careful!"<ref name=":5" />}} |
|||
==== Yes/no-Interrogative ==== |
==== Yes/no-Interrogative ==== |
||
{{interlinear |
{{interlinear |
||
| indent = 3|fûesû{{=}}ti jin|OTHER{{=}}INT exist|‘Is there another one?’ |
|||
|Fûesûti jin |
|||
<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" />{{rp|41}} |
|||
|fûesû{{=}}ti jin |
|||
}} |
|||
|other{{=}}INT exist |
|||
|"Is there another one?"<ref name=":5" />}} |
|||
==== Content Interrogative ==== |
==== Content Interrogative ==== |
||
{{interlinear |
{{interlinear |
||
| indent = 3|ma{{=}}jan{{=}}tsû ka’ni-a|IGNR1{{=}}{{gcl|CNTR.TOP|contrastive topic}}{{=}}3 enter-CAUS|‘Who let you in?’ |
|||
|Majantsû ka'nia |
|||
<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" />{{rp|42}} |
|||
|majan{{=}}tsû ka'ni-a |
|||
}} |
|||
|which{{=}}3 enter-CAUS |
|||
|"Who let you in?"<ref name=":5" />}} |
|||
==== Exhortative ==== |
|||
{{interlinear|indent=3|glossing3=yes|italics1=no |
|||
|Jinge juvanga jaye |
|||
|jinge juva{{=}}nga ja-ye |
|||
|HORT DIST2{{=}}DAT go-INF |
|||
|"Let's go over there"<ref name=":5" />}} |
|||
==== Prohibitive ==== |
==== Prohibitive ==== |
||
{{interlinear |
{{interlinear |
||
| indent = 3|anthe{{=}}jama chigane|let.go{{=}}PROH please|‘Don’t let it go please!’ |
|||
|Anthejama chigane |
|||
<ref name="Fischer&Hengeveld" />{{rp|41}} |
|||
|anthe{{=}}jama chigane |
|||
}} |
|||
|let.go{{=}}PRHB please |
|||
|"Don't let it go please!"<ref name=":5" />}} |
|||
== Writing system == |
|||
A{{hamza}}ingae has two principal orthographies, both using the Latin alphabet. The first was developed by missionaries Marlytte and Roberta Borman, and first employed in M. Borman (1962).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Borman |first=M. B. |date=1962 |editor-first=Banjamin |title=Cofán Phonemes |url=https://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/16/08/22/160822378710000347123672599515131741594/10039.pdf |journal=Studies in Ecuadorian Indian Languages: I |publisher=[[Instituto Lingüístico de Verano (Mexico)|Instituto Lingüístico de Verano]] |pages=45–59 |doi=10.1086/465008 |editor-last1=Elson}}</ref> This orthography was influenced by Spanish and thus contained some needless complexity such as representing the phoneme /k/ with {{angbr|qu}} before front vowels, and with {{angbr|c}} elsewhere. Borman also conveyed aspirated obstruents via reduplication instead of via <h> insertion like in the modern orthography. More recently, the Cofán community has created and widely adopted a new writing system which aimed to solve some of the opacities of Borman's script. A comparison between the two orthographies can be observed in the tables below: |
|||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |
|||
|+Consonants |
|||
! IPA |
|||
! Borman |
|||
! Community |
|||
! IPA |
|||
! Borman |
|||
! Community |
|||
|- |
|||
| /p/ |
|||
|colspan="2"| p |
|||
| /ⁿdz/ |
|||
|colspan="2"| ndz, dz{{efn|Both Borman and Community orthographies show inconsistency between the use of {{grapheme|dz}} and {{grapheme|z}}.}} |
|||
|- |
|||
| /pʰ/ |
|||
| pp |
|||
| ph |
|||
| /ⁿdʒ/ |
|||
|colspan="2"|ndy, dy |
|||
|- |
|||
| /t/ |
|||
|colspan="2"| t |
|||
| /f/ |
|||
|colspan="2"| f |
|||
|- |
|||
| /tʰ/ |
|||
| tt |
|||
| th |
|||
| /s/ |
|||
|colspan="2"| s |
|||
|- |
|||
| /k/ |
|||
| c, qu |
|||
| k |
|||
| /ʃ/ |
|||
|colspan="2"| sh |
|||
|- |
|||
| /kʰ/ |
|||
| cc, qqu |
|||
| kh |
|||
| /h/ |
|||
|colspan="2"| j |
|||
|- |
|||
| /ʔ/ |
|||
|colspan="2"| {{hamza}} |
|||
| /m/ |
|||
|colspan="2"| m |
|||
|- |
|||
| /ts/ |
|||
|colspan="2"| ts |
|||
| /n/ |
|||
|colspan="2"| n |
|||
|- |
|||
| /tsʰ/ |
|||
| tss |
|||
| tsh |
|||
| /ɲ/ |
|||
|colspan="2"| ñ |
|||
|- |
|||
| /tʃ/ |
|||
|colspan="2"| ch |
|||
| /ɾ/ |
|||
|colspan="2"| r |
|||
|- |
|||
| /tʃʰ/ |
|||
| cch |
|||
| chh |
|||
| /ʋ/ |
|||
|colspan="2"| v |
|||
|- |
|||
| /ᵐb/ |
|||
|colspan="2"| mb, b{{efn|The prenasalized voiced stops and affricates are written without a homorganic nasal at the beginning of words. This is because word-initially, voiced stops are realized with less nasality than they are word-medially, hence the orthographic representation. However Repetti-Ludlow et al. (2020)<ref name=":6" /> found that there is still some nasalisation present.}} |
|||
| /j/ |
|||
|colspan="2"| y |
|||
|- |
|||
| /ⁿd/ |
|||
|colspan="2"| nd, d |
|||
| /ɰ/ |
|||
|colspan="2"| g |
|||
|- |
|||
| /ᵑɡ/ |
|||
|colspan="2"| ng, g |
|||
| colspan="3" | |
|||
|} |
|||
{{notelist}} |
|||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |
|||
|+Vowels |
|||
!IPA !! Borman !! Community |
|||
!IPA !! Borman !! Community |
|||
|- |
|||
|/a/ |
|||
| colspan="2"|a |
|||
|/ã/ |
|||
| colspan="2"|an, a |
|||
|- |
|||
|/e/ |
|||
| colspan="2"|e |
|||
|/ẽ/ |
|||
| colspan="2"|en, e |
|||
|- |
|||
|/i/ |
|||
| colspan="2"|i |
|||
|/ĩ/ |
|||
| colspan="2"|in, i |
|||
|- |
|||
|/o/ |
|||
|o |
|||
|u |
|||
|/õ/ |
|||
|on, o |
|||
|un, u |
|||
|- |
|||
|/ɨ/ |
|||
|u |
|||
|û |
|||
|/ɨ̃/ |
|||
|un, u |
|||
|ûn, û |
|||
|} |
|||
==Examples== |
|||
==Useful Words and Phrases== |
|||
{| class="wikitable" |
{| class="wikitable" |
||
|+ |
|+ |
||
!A |
!A{{hamza}}ingae |
||
!English gloss |
!English gloss |
||
|- |
|- |
||
Line 635: | Line 686: | ||
|- |
|- |
||
|Chiga tsû afepuenjan |
|Chiga tsû afepuenjan |
||
|Thank you (lit |
|Thank you ({{lit}} "May God pay you") |
||
|- |
|- |
||
|Pañambingi |
|Pañambingi |
||
Line 644: | Line 695: | ||
|- |
|- |
||
|Chigai'khû |
|Chigai'khû |
||
|Goodbye (lit |
|Goodbye ({{lit}} "God with you") |
||
|- |
|- |
||
|Junguesû tsû? |
|Junguesû tsû? |
||
Line 683: | Line 734: | ||
|} |
|} |
||
== Sample |
== Sample == |
||
=== A |
=== A{{hamza}}ingae passage === |
||
The following text is [[The North Wind and the Sun|''The North Wind and the Sun'']] translated into A{{hamza}}ingae.{{interlinear |indent=2 |tone-superscripting=no |
|||
''"Umba{{hamza}}khûni{{hamza}}sû Fingian tuyakaen kue{{hamza}}jete afa{{hamza}}khu{{hamza}}je{{hamza}}fa majan de ti{{hamza}}tshe ki{{hamza}}an{{hamza}}khe, tsun{{hamza}}jeninde jakan{{hamza}}sû tu{{hamza}}mbia sa{{hamza}}vutshia upûi{{hamza}}jenga findiye{{hamza}}chu ji'' |
|||
|Umba{{hamza}}khûni{{hamza}}sû Fingian tuyakaen kue{{hamza}}jete afa{{hamza}}khu{{hamza}}je{{hamza}}fa {majan de} ti{{hamza}}tshe ki{{hamza}}an{{hamza}}khe, tsun{{hamza}}jeninde jakan{{hamza}}sû tu{{hamza}}mbia sa{{hamza}}vutshia upûi{{hamza}}jenga findiye{{hamza}}chu ji |
|||
|[õˈᵐba.kʰɨ.ni.sɨ ˈfĩ.ᵑɡiã ˈto.ja.kãe koḛ.ˈhe.te a.ˈfã̰.kʰo.he.fa ˈmã.jã.ⁿde ˈti.t͡sʰɨi ˈkĩ.jã.kʰẽ ˈt͡sõ̰.hẽ.nĩ.ⁿde ˈha.kã̰.sɨ ˈto.ᵐbia̰ ˈsa̰.ʋɨ.t͡sʰia oˈpuḭ.hẽ.ᵑɡa fĩ.ˈdi.je.t͡ʃo ˈhi] |
|||
|The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak.}} |
|||
{{interlinear |indent=2 |tone-superscripting=no |
|||
''Tansi{{hamza}}fate tsa majan u{{hamza}}tie tise jakansû findiye{{hamza}}chu upûi{{hamza}}jema ushi{{hamza}}chhachhu ti{{hamza}}tshe ki{{hamza}}añe'' |
|||
|{Tansi{{hamza}}fate tsa} majan u{{hamza}}tie tise jakansû findiye{{hamza}}chu upûi{{hamza}}jema ushi{{hamza}}chhachhu ti{{hamza}}tshe ki{{hamza}}añe |
|||
|[tã.ˈsḭ̃.fa.te.t͡sa ˈmã.hã ˈo̰.tiḛ ˈti.se ˈha.kã.sɨ fi.ˈⁿdi.jḛ.t͡ʃo o.ˈpuḭ.hẽ.mã u.ˈʃiʔ.t͡ʃʰa.t͡ʃʰo {} kĩ.jã.nẽ] |
|||
|They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other.}} |
|||
{{interlinear |indent=2 |tone-superscripting=no |
|||
''Tsumbate, umbani{{hamza}}sû fingian û{{hamza}}fa kia{{hamza}}me tise usha{{hamza}}fanga, tsama tise ti{{hamza}}tshe ûfa{{hamza}}ni jakan{{hamza}}sû tise upûi{{hamza}}jema findi; usefa{{hamza}}panga umbakhûni{{hamza}}sû fingian ushambipa anthe'' |
|||
|Tsumbate, umbani{{hamza}}sû fingian {û{{hamza}}fa kia{{hamza}}me} tise usha{{hamza}}fanga, tsama tise ti{{hamza}}tshe ûfa{{hamza}}ni jakan{{hamza}}sû tise upûi{{hamza}}jema findi; usefa{{hamza}}panga umbakhûni{{hamza}}sû fingian ushambipa anthe |
|||
|[ˈt͡sõ.ᵐba.te ˈõ.ᵐba.ni.sɨ fĩ.ᵑɡiã ˈɨ.fakiã̰.mẽ ˈti.se ˈu.ʃa̰.fã̰.ᵑɡa ˈt͡sa.ma ˈti.se ˈti.t͡sʰe ˈɨ.fa̰.ni ˈha.kã.sɨ ˈti.se o.ˈpuḭ.hẽ.mã ˈfĩ.ⁿdi o.ˈse.faʔ.pã.ᵑɡa õ.ˈᵐba.kʰɨ.nḭ.su ˈfĩ.ᵑɡiã u.ˈʃã.ᵐbi.pa ã.tʰḛ] |
|||
|Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt.}} |
|||
{{interlinear |indent=2 |tone-superscripting=no |
|||
''Tsunsite kue{{hamza}}je savutshi chan{{hamza}}jun, tsuin{{hamza}}khûte favatsheyi jacan{{hamza}}su tise upûi{{hamza}}jema ushicha'' |
|||
|Tsunsite kue{{hamza}}je savutshi chan{{hamza}}jun, tsuin{{hamza}}khûte favatsheyi jacan{{hamza}}su tise upûi{{hamza}}jema ushicha |
|||
|[ˈt͡sõ.si.te ˈkoe.he ˈsaʔ.ʋɨ.t͡si ˈt͡ʃã.hɨ t͡sɨ̃ḭ̃.kɨ.tḛ fa.ˈʋa.t͡sɨi ˈha.kã̰.sɨ ˈti.se o.ˈpuḭ.he.mã u.ˈʃi.t͡ʃʰa] |
|||
|Then the Sun shone out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak.}} |
|||
{{interlinear |indent=2 |tone-superscripting=no |
|||
''Tsumbate umbani{{hamza}}sû fingian tansi{{hamza}}ña{{hamza}}choveda{{hamza}}ya tsa kue{{hamza}}je khua{{hamza}}nginga in{{hamza}}jani ti{{hamza}}tshe kian{{hamza}}khe."''<ref name=":6" /> |
|||
|Tsumbate umbani{{hamza}}sû fingian tansi{{hamza}}ña{{hamza}}choveda{{hamza}}ya tsa kue{{hamza}}je khua{{hamza}}nginga in{{hamza}}jani ti{{hamza}}tshe kian{{hamza}}khe. |
|||
|[ˈt͡so.ᵐbaʔ.tḛ ˈõ.ᵐba.ni.su ˈfĩ.ᵑɡia tã.ˈsi.jã̰.t͡ʃo.ʋe.ˈda̰.ja t͡sa ˈkoḛ.he ˈkʰua̰.ᵑɡi.ᵑɡa ˈĩʔ.ha.ni ˈti.t͡sʰe ˈkĩ.jã.kʰḛ̃] |
|||
=== IPA phonetic transcription: === |
|||
|And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two.<ref name=":6" />}} |
|||
"{{IPA|[õˈmba.kʰɨ.ni.sɨ ˈfĩ.ŋgiã ˈto.ja.kãe koḛ. ˈhe.te a.ˈfã̰.kʰo.he.fa ˈmã.jã.nde ˈti.t͡sʰɨi ˈkĩ.jã.kʰẽ ˈt͡sõ̰.hẽ.nĩ.nde ˈha.kã̰.sɨ ˈto.mbia̰ ˈsa̰.ʋɨ.t͡sʰia.o ˈpuḭ.hẽ.ŋga fĩ. ˈdi.je.t͡ʃo ˈhi]}} |
|||
{{IPA|[tã.ˈsḭ̃.fa.te.t͡sa ˈmã.hã ˈo̰.tiḛ ˈti.se ˈha.kã.sɨ fi.ˈndi.jḛ.t͡ʃo o.ˈpuḭ.hẽ.mã u.ˈʃiʔ.t͡ʃʰa.t͡ʃʰo kĩ.jã.nẽ]}} |
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[ˈt͡sõ.mba.teˈõ.mba.ni.sɨ fĩ.ŋgiãˈɨ.fakiã̰.mẽˈti.seˈu.ʃa̰.fã̰.ŋgaˈt͡sa.maˈti.seˈti.t͡sʰeˈɨ.fa̰.niˈha.kã.sɨ ˈti.se o.ˈpuḭ.hẽ.mã ˈfĩ.ndi o. ˈse.faʔ.pã.ŋga õ. ˈmba.kʰɨ.nḭ.su ˈfĩ.ŋgiã u. ˈʃã.mbi.pa ã.tʰḛ] |
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{{IPA|[ˈt͡sõ.si.te ˈkoe.he ˈsaʔ.ʋɨ.t͡si ˈt͡ʃã.hɨ t͡sɨ̃ḭ̃.kɨ.tḛ fa. ˈʋa.t͡sɨi ˈha.kã̰.sɨ ˈti.se o. ˈpuḭ.he.mã u. ˈʃi.t͡ʃʰa]}} |
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{{IPA|[ˈt͡so.mbaʔ.tḛ ˈõ.mba.ni.su ˈfĩ.ŋgia tã.ˈsi.jã̰.t͡ʃo.ʋe.ˈda̰.ja t͡sa ˈkoḛ.he ˈkʰua̰.ŋgi.ŋga ˈĩʔ.ha.ni ˈti.t͡sʰe ˈkĩ.jã.kʰḛ̃]}}"<ref name=":6" /> |
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=== English translation: === |
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"The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak. |
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They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other. |
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Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. |
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Then the Sun shone out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak. |
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And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two."<ref name=":6" /> |
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== Further reading == |
== Further reading == |
||
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* {{Cite journal|last=Borman|first=M. B.|date=1977|title=Cofan paragraph structure and function|journal=SIL International Publications in Linguistics|volume=52|issue=3|pages=289–338|access-date=March 10, 2017|url=https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/8678}} |
* {{Cite journal|last=Borman|first=M. B.|date=1977|title=Cofan paragraph structure and function|journal=SIL International Publications in Linguistics|volume=52|issue=3|pages=289–338|access-date=March 10, 2017|url=https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/8678}} |
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* Borman, M. B. (1990). ''Cofan cosmology and history as revealed in their legends: The Cofan Alphabet''. Quito, Ecuador: Instituto Linguistico de Verano.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Borman|first=M. B.|url=https://archive.org/details/rosettaproject_con_ortho-1|title=Cofan cosmology and history as revealed in their legends|date=1990-01-01|publisher=Instituto Linguistico de Verano}}</ref> |
* Borman, M. B. (1990). ''Cofan cosmology and history as revealed in their legends: The Cofan Alphabet''. Quito, Ecuador: Instituto Linguistico de Verano.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Borman|first=M. B.|url=https://archive.org/details/rosettaproject_con_ortho-1|title=Cofan cosmology and history as revealed in their legends|date=1990-01-01|publisher=Instituto Linguistico de Verano}}</ref> |
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* Cofán. (n.d.). Retrieved March 10, 2017, from <nowiki>https://www.ethnologue.com/language/con</nowiki><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/con|title=Cofán|work=Ethnologue|access-date=2017-03-10}}</ref> |
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* Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian, eds. (2016). [http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/cofa1242 "Cofán"]. ''[[Glottolog|Glottolog 2.7]]''. Jena: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. |
* Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian, eds. (2016). [http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/cofa1242 "Cofán"]. ''[[Glottolog|Glottolog 2.7]]''. Jena: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. |
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* Gijn, E. V., Haude, K., & Muysken, P. (2011). ''Subordination in native South-American languages''. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Pub. Co.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last1=Gijn|first1=Rik van|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fcFxAAAAQBAJ&q=Cof%C3%A1n+language&pg=PA221|title=Subordination in Native South American Languages|last2=Haude|first2=Katharina|last3=Muysken|first3=Pieter|date=2011-04-29|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing|isbn=9789027287090|language=en}}</ref> |
* Gijn, E. V., Haude, K., & Muysken, P. (2011). ''Subordination in native South-American languages''. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Pub. Co.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last1=Gijn|first1=Rik van|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fcFxAAAAQBAJ&q=Cof%C3%A1n+language&pg=PA221|title=Subordination in Native South American Languages|last2=Haude|first2=Katharina|last3=Muysken|first3=Pieter|date=2011-04-29|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing|isbn=9789027287090|language=en}}</ref> |
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* Klein, H. E., & Stark, L. R. (2011). ''South American Indian languages: retrospect and prospect''. Austin: University of Texas Press. |
* Klein, H. E., & Stark, L. R. (2011). ''South American Indian languages: retrospect and prospect''. Austin: University of Texas Press. |
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* {{Cite report|editor1-last=Lewis|editor1-first=M. Paul|editor2-last=Simons|editor2-first=Gary F.|editor3-last=Fennig|editor3-first=Charles D.|date=2015|title=Ethnologue: Languages of Ecuador|edition=18th|pages=11–21|access-date=March 10, 2017|url=http://www.linguisticsnetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/Ethnologue-18-Ecuador.pdf}} |
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==References== |
==References== |
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ACC1:accusative case |
ACC1:accusative case |
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ACC2:accusative case |
ACC2:accusative case |
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ANG:angular |
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ADN:adnominalizer |
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ANA:anaphoric |
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ANA.LOC:anaphoric locative |
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CMP:comparative |
CMP:comparative |
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DIST2:distal |
DIST2:distal |
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HORT2:hortative |
HORT2:hortative |
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IMP3:imperative mood |
IMP3:imperative mood |
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LAT:lateral |
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NEW:new topic |
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PLH:human plural |
PLH:human plural |
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PLS:plural subject |
PLS:plural subject |
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PRHB:prohibitive mood |
PRHB:prohibitive mood |
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RPRT:reportative |
RPRT:reportative |
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SFC:surface |
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"SH.ANG":angular shape |
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SH:shape |
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"SH.SFC":surface shape |
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<!-- Fischer and Hengeveld --> |
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ADJR:adjectivalizer |
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ADVR:adverbializer |
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ANA.LOC:anaphoric locative |
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ANA:anaphoric reference to entity or event |
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IGNR1:ignorative 1 |
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IGNR2:ignorative 2 |
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OTHER:difference marker |
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QUAL:quality |
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SIM:similative |
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</div><section end="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/> |
</div><section end="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/> |
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==External links== |
==External links== |
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*[http://www.ling.fi/Entradas%20diccionario/Dic=Cof%e1n.pdf Alain Fabre, 2005, ''Diccionario etnolingüístico y guía bibliográfica de los pueblos indígenas sudamericanos: COFÁN'']{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} |
*[http://www.ling.fi/Entradas%20diccionario/Dic=Cof%e1n.pdf Alain Fabre, 2005, ''Diccionario etnolingüístico y guía bibliográfica de los pueblos indígenas sudamericanos: COFÁN'']{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} |
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*[https://elar.soas.ac.uk/Collection/MPI1079687 ELAR archive of |
*[https://elar.soas.ac.uk/Collection/MPI1079687 ELAR archive of A{{hamza}}ingae language documentation materials] |
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*[https://ids.clld.org/contributions/254 Cofán] ([[Intercontinental Dictionary Series]]) |
*[https://ids.clld.org/contributions/254 Cofán] ([[Intercontinental Dictionary Series]]) |
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Revision as of 00:55, 9 June 2024
Cofán | |
---|---|
Aʼingae | |
Native to | Ecuador, Colombia |
Ethnicity | Cofán people |
Native speakers | 1,000 (2012)[1] |
Latin script | |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-3 | con |
Glottolog | cofa1242 |
ELP | Cofán |
Aʼingae, commonly known as Cofán or Kofán, is the primary language of the Aʼi (Cofán) people, an indigenous group whose ancestral territory lies at the interface between the Andean foothills and Amazonia in the northeast of Ecuador (Sucumbíos province) and southern Colombia (Putumayo & Nariño provinces).
While past classifications have identified Cofán as belonging to linguistic families such as Chibchan[2] or Andean B,[3] it is now widely agreed to be a language isolate, with no known genetic relatives.[4][5][6][7] Although still robustly learned by children in Ecuadorian communities, it is considered an 'endangered' language with estimates of around 1500 native speakers.
History and current status
Aʼingae is a language isolate of Amazonia spoken by the Cofán people in Sucumbios Province in northeastern Ecuador and the departments of Putumayo and Nariño in southern Colombia. The language has approximately 1500 speakers and is relatively vital in Ecuador and severely endangered in Colombia.[7] However, language attitudes about Aʼingae are positive and it is considered foundational to Cofán identity and community (Cepek 2012).
The Aʼi are traditionally hunter-gatherers who historically spanned over a large territory (AnderBois et al. 2019). In Ecuador, the Cofán have resisted conquest by the Inca and colonization by the Spanish, as well as anti-indigenous policies by the Ecuadorian government. The pre-Colombian Cofán population is estimated at 60,000 to 70,000. Though the origin of the Cofán is the Eastern Andean Cordilleras, Inca encroachment pushed the Cofán to the eastern lowlands, which they still inhabit today. The Cofán have undergone de facto segregation codified by the Ecuadorian government, a measles outbreak in 1923 that reduced the population to a few hundred, and illegal oil extraction that threatened the environment in Cofán territory and the Cofán way of life. The Cofán have played a major role in the Indigenous movement in Ecuador, and in 2018 they won a judicial case recognizing their right to decide over environmental activities in their territory and prohibiting the continued operation of mining activities.[7]
The Cofán's religious tradition is shamanistic, and a key cultural value of the Cofán is harmonious conviviality. In addition, participation in cultural practices such as drinking yaje and traditional skills like hunting and housebuilding, rather than descent or ethnicity, plays a large role in determining one's status as an aʼi (Cepek 2012). The Cofán credit their strong linguistic identity for their ability to withstand colonial oppression and protect their traditional way of life.[7]
Aʼingae is a language isolate. The language has considerable Amazonian borrowings from Tukanoan and Cariban languages, as well as many Quechuan borrowings. While there have been previous claims of genetic ties or language contact of Aʼingae to Barbacoan, Chicham, and Chibchan, it has been determined that there are no substantial borrowings.[8] No complete grammar of the language has been produced.[5]
The name of the language, Aʼingae, which consists of the stem aʼi ('person, Cofán person, civilized person') and the manner clitic =ngae, means 'in the manner of the people'. Though the speakers use the word Aʼingae, the language is also known by the Spanish denomination Cofán.
Phonology
Aʼingae has 27 consonants as well as 5 oral monophthongs and 6 oral diphthongs, each with a nasal counterpart which is contrastive. The language is currently considered to have an unknown amount of dialectal variation. It is quite likely that there is some, but no concrete research and evidence has been put forward to make a strong claim either way, warranting further investigation.[8]
Consonants
The 27 consonant phonemes are listed below in the table with their IPA representations. In Aʼingae, there is a three-way, contrastive distinction between voiceless, aspirated, and prenasalized plosives and affricates. There are no such distinctions for fricatives. All consonants can be word-initial, except for /ʔ/ and /ɰ/. Note that glottal stop, although phonologically contrastive, can be realized as creakiness.[8]
Labial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Plosive/ Affricate |
plain | p | t | t͡s | t͡ʃ | k | ʔ |
aspirated | pʰ | tʰ | t͡sʰ | t͡ʃʰ | kʰ | ||
prenasal | ᵐb | ⁿd | ⁿd͡z | ⁿd͡ʒ | ᵑg | ||
Fricative | f | s | ʃ | h | |||
Nasal | m | n | ɲ | ||||
Approximant | ʋ | j | ɰ | ||||
Tap | ɾ |
Vowels
The 5 oral vowels and their nasal counterparts are listed in the table below with their IPA representation. The 6 diphthongs and their nasal counterparts in IPA representation are the following: [ai]/[ãĩ], [oe]/[õẽ], [oa]/[õã], [oi]/[õĩ], [ɨi]/[ɨ̃ĩ], and [ao]/[ãõ].
Front | Central | Back | |
---|---|---|---|
High | i / ĩ | ɨ / ɨ̃ | |
Mid | e / ẽ | o / õ | |
Low | a / ã |
Diphthongs
When vowels appear adjacent to one another, they either become a diphthong (for the pairs listed above) or a glide is inserted if a diphthong does not exist for that pair. For example:
Note that the vowel pair /ae/ is realized as [ai].
Triphthongs do not exist in Aʼingae, and glottal stops are inserted phonemically when a sequence of three vowels would occur as in example (1) below.[5]
Nasalization
Nasalization is a major feature of the Aʼingae sound system. As already seen, there are contrastive prenasalized consonants as well as contrastive nasal counterparts to all monophthongs and diphthongs. Example (4) below demonstrates their contrasting nature:
- (4a) /hi/ [hi] 'to come'
- (4b) /hĩ/ [hĩ] 'to exist'
Along with being contrastive, nasalization also plays a key phonological role in the surface realization of morphemes, working both backwards and forwards. The consonants /p/, /t/, /ʋ/, and /j/ all become nasalized when following a nasal vowel, becoming /ᵐb/, /ⁿd/, /m/, and /ɲ/, respectively, as in examples (5) and (6).
- (5a) /ha-pa/ [ha.pa] (go-SS) 'to go'
- (5b) /hẽ-pa/ [hẽ.ᵐba] (sound-SS) 'to sound'
- (6a) /hi-ʔja/ [hiʔ.ja] (come-VER) 'does come'
- (6b) /hĩ-ʔja/ [hĩʔ.ɲã] (exist-VER) 'does exist'
Note that nasalization of vowels can cross consonant boundaries when the vowels are separated by a glottal fricative /h/ or glottal stop /ʔ/ (even when a glide is present) as in example (*) above and example (7) below:[5]
- (7a) /tsɨi-ʔhe/ [tsɨiʔ.he] (walk-IPFV) 'walking'
- (7b) /tsõ-ʔhe/ [tsõʔ.hẽ] (do-IPFV) 'doing'
Additionally, oral vowels become nasalized when preceding prenasalized consonants and when following nasal consonants.
They also become nasalized when either preceded or followed by a nasal vowel, as in examples (10) and (11).
- (10) /ho.ʋaʔ.kã.o/ [ho.ʋaʔ.kãõ] (DIST=SIM=AUG) 'exactly like that'[5]: 4
Syllable structure
Aʼingae syllable structure is (C)V(ʔ),[8] with many variations thereof. At minimum a syllable can be a singular vowel and at maximum can be consonant onset with a diphthong nucleus and glottal stop coda.[5] Note that vowel length is not a relevant feature in syllable structure. A complete list of the structures allowed is given in the table below with examples for each.[5]
V | [a.ʔi] | 'person' |
VV | [ãĩ] | 'dog' |
CV | [tʃã] | 'mother' |
CVV | [kʰoa] | 'pumpkin' |
Vʔ | [iʔ.fa] | 'we/they/you all bring' |
VVʔ | [aiʔ.ʋo] | 'body' |
CVʔ | [paʔ.tʃo] | 'dead' |
CVVʔ | [dʒaiʔ.tʃo] | 'chair' |
Prosody
Generally speaking, in the absence of a glottal stop, stress in Aʼingae is found on the penultimate syllable as in examples (12a) and (12b). When a glottal stop is present however, stress is found on the syllable with the second mora before the glottal stop (Dąbkowski, 2020), compare examples (13a) and (13b). This is a stress pattern that is currently cross-linguistically unattested.
- (12a) [ˈfe.tʰa] 'open'
- (12b) [fe.ˈtʰa.hi] 'open-PRCM'[clarification needed]
- (13a) [ˈfe.tʰa.ʔhe] 'open-IPFV'
- (13b) [fɨn.ˈdɨi.ʔhe] 'sweep-IPFV'
Stress can in some cases be contrastive, compare (14a) and (14b).
Morphology
Morphology in Aʼingae consists of stems, clitics, and suffixes.[5] Free stems include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbials, and meteorological stems (such as words for "wind", "rain", and "sun").
tsa
ANA
sinjûnkhû
valley
rande
big
tsampi
forest
sepakhue-fa
behind-CLF:lateral
‘that big valley behind the forest’ (elic.) [5]: 21
While many stems are free, there are also a number of bound stems, which typically express states of being or properties, and are in a class of "flexible stems" by themselves. In the following sentence, bia "long" is one of these bound stems.
tutu-fa-’khu=ve=tsû
white-CLF:lateral=AUG=ACC.IRR=3
bia-ña=’fa=’ya
long-CAUS=SBJ.PL=ASS
‘They lengthened (the cotton) into white rope.’ [5]: 9
Beyond stems, Aʼingae has both bound suffixes and clitics, specifically enclitics that appear after the stem. There are no known prefixes or proclitics. In glossed content, suffixes are typically notated with a hyphen, and clitics are notated with an equal sign. The language has a very rich inventory of clitics, that can appear either at sentence level or constituent level. Sentence-level clitics occur at second position, meaning they attach to the end of the first word in a sentence, and mark qualities such as subject and sentence type.
atesû=ti=ki
know=INT=2
ke=ja
2.SG=CNTR.TOP
Secoya
Secoya
a’i=ma
person=ACC.REAL
‘Do you know Secoya people?’ [5]: 10
Constituent-level clitics can either attach to the noun phrase or subordinate clause, or to the predicate clause. Clitics in the noun phrase occur in a fixed order, and can mark case, negation, and other grammatical features.
jingesû
HORT
ja-ye
go-INF
tsa
ANA
a’i
person
cerveza=ma
beer=ACC.REAL
chava-en-je=ni
buy-CAUS-IPFV=LOC
‘Let’s go to where that man is selling beer.’ (elic.) [5]: 11
Suffixes also mark certain grammatical features. Some example include sentential type/mood, nominalization, and aspect. Passive, causative, and shape features are also indicated with suffixes.
jungue=sû=ma=tsû
IGNR2=ATTR=ACC.REAL=3
ñua’me
really
tsetse’pa=ve
chicha=ACC.IRR
tsetse’pa-en-ñe
chicha-CAUS-INF
atesû=’fa
HAB.AUX=SBJ.PL
‘What did they use to make chicha with?’ [5]: 29
Also present in the language is the process of reduplication, which expresses iterative aspect.
Tsunsi
tsun=si
do=DS
chapejuen
chape=ju=en
soften=SH.SFC=ADV
akesi
ake=si
warm.up=DS
kikhûkhûpa
kikhû~khû=pa
hurl~ITER=SS
"Then they cook and when they're warmed up, we crush them."[9]
Inflectional template
Clitics and suffixes in the language have a relatively fixed order of how they will attach to a verb or predicate phrase.[10]
causative | -ɲa (CAUS) | |
reciprocal | -kʰo∅ (RECP) | |
passive | -je∅ (PASS) | |
aspect |
| |
associated motion |
| |
subject number | -ʔfa (PLS) | |
reality | -ja (IRR) | |
polarity | -ᵐbi (NEG) | |
clause type
|
subordinate |
|
cosubordinate |
| |
matrix |
| |
information structure |
| |
sentence-level |
| |
subject person |
|
Pronouns
Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|
1st person | ña "I, my" | ingi "we, our" |
2nd person | ke "you, your" | ke'i "you all, your" |
3rd person | tise "he/she/it, his/her/its" | tisepa "they, their" |
1st person | =ngi |
---|---|
2nd person | =ki |
3rd person | =tsû |
Syntax
Constituent order in matrix clauses in Aʼingae is relatively flexible, with SOV (or SO-predicate) considered basic.[5] In embedded clauses, word order is more rigidly SOV/SOPred. Clauses must minimally consist of a predicate.
chava=ngi
buy=1
fûesû
OTHER
simba-’khu=ma
fishing-CL:angular=ACC.REAL
‘I bought a different fishing hook.’ (elic.) [5]: 23
kanjen
stay
‘He stayed’ [5]: 38
Subordinate clauses are strictly predicate-final.
ña=ja
I=CNTR.TOP
asithaen=ngi
think=1
[kinikhu=ve
tree=ACC.IRR
da-ye]
become-INF
‘I think I’ll become a tree.’ [5]: 44
Case and alignment
Case markers are constituent-level clitics.[5]
tayupi=ja
former=CNTR.TOP
charapa
charapa.turtle
dû’sûchu=ve
egg=ACC.IRR
kaje=ni
downriver=LOC
ja-je=’fa=’ya
go-IPFV=PL=ASS
‘In earlier times they used to go downriver for charapa eggs.’ [5]: 35
The full list of case markers is shown below.
=ma | ACC1 | accusative 1 |
=ve/=me | ACC2 | accusative 2 |
=mbe | BEN | benefactive |
=i'khû | INST | instrument |
=pi | LIM | limitative |
=ni | LOC | locative |
=ngae | MANN | manner, path |
=ne | ABL | ablative |
=nga | DAT | dative |
=ye / =ñe | ELAT | elative |
Note that there are two accusative case markers. Accusative 2 typically is used in negative sentences or when the P-argument is not yet present or does not exist, in contexts of expressing desire, causation, or creation.
Sentences follow a nominative-accusative pattern. Aʼingae displays optional agreement—optional agreement in person using second position clitics, and optional agreement in number using the clitic ='fa--both of which agree with the subject argument. Within the noun phrase, there is no agreement.
Sentence type
Aʼingae distinguishes between several different sentence types.[5] These distinctions are indicated using different morphosyntactic strategies. Declarative sentences can contain the optional veridical clitic ='ya. There are several imperative types, depending on what speech act is being performed, using either the imperative clitics =ja or ='se or the diminutive suffix ='kha. There is a distinction between yes/no interrogative and content interrogative sentences, with the former using the interrogative clitic =ti and the latter using the indeterminate/interrogative wh-word in the initial position (jungaesû ("what"), maki ("when"), mani ("where"), majan ("which"), mikun ("why"), mingae ("how")). Exhortative sentences use the hortative particle jinge. Prohibitive sentences use the clitic =jama. Below are some examples of these sentence types.
Assertive/Declarative
Imperative
injan=’fa=kha
think=PL=DIM
‘Mind you!/Be careful!’ [5]: 41
Yes/no-Interrogative
Content Interrogative
Prohibitive
Writing system
Aʼingae has two principal orthographies, both using the Latin alphabet. The first was developed by missionaries Marlytte and Roberta Borman, and first employed in M. Borman (1962).[11] This orthography was influenced by Spanish and thus contained some needless complexity such as representing the phoneme /k/ with ⟨qu⟩ before front vowels, and with ⟨c⟩ elsewhere. Borman also conveyed aspirated obstruents via reduplication instead of via <h> insertion like in the modern orthography. More recently, the Cofán community has created and widely adopted a new writing system which aimed to solve some of the opacities of Borman's script. A comparison between the two orthographies can be observed in the tables below:
IPA | Borman | Community | IPA | Borman | Community |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
/p/ | p | /ⁿdz/ | ndz, dz[a] | ||
/pʰ/ | pp | ph | /ⁿdʒ/ | ndy, dy | |
/t/ | t | /f/ | f | ||
/tʰ/ | tt | th | /s/ | s | |
/k/ | c, qu | k | /ʃ/ | sh | |
/kʰ/ | cc, qqu | kh | /h/ | j | |
/ʔ/ | ʼ | /m/ | m | ||
/ts/ | ts | /n/ | n | ||
/tsʰ/ | tss | tsh | /ɲ/ | ñ | |
/tʃ/ | ch | /ɾ/ | r | ||
/tʃʰ/ | cch | chh | /ʋ/ | v | |
/ᵐb/ | mb, b[b] | /j/ | y | ||
/ⁿd/ | nd, d | /ɰ/ | g | ||
/ᵑɡ/ | ng, g |
- ^ Both Borman and Community orthographies show inconsistency between the use of ⟨dz⟩ and ⟨z⟩.
- ^ The prenasalized voiced stops and affricates are written without a homorganic nasal at the beginning of words. This is because word-initially, voiced stops are realized with less nasality than they are word-medially, hence the orthographic representation. However Repetti-Ludlow et al. (2020)[8] found that there is still some nasalisation present.
IPA | Borman | Community | IPA | Borman | Community |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
/a/ | a | /ã/ | an, a | ||
/e/ | e | /ẽ/ | en, e | ||
/i/ | i | /ĩ/ | in, i | ||
/o/ | o | u | /õ/ | on, o | un, u |
/ɨ/ | u | û | /ɨ̃/ | un, u | ûn, û |
Examples
Aʼingae | English gloss |
---|---|
kase'te | hello (morning) |
kuse kuse | hello (evening) |
jû | yes |
me'in | no |
dasû | OK; goodbye |
Mingae ki | How are you? |
Chiga tsû afepuenjan | Thank you (lit. "May God pay you") |
Pañambingi | I don't understand |
Ñutshi tsû | That's good; good |
Chigai'khû | Goodbye (lit. "God with you") |
Junguesû tsû? | What is this? |
Majan tsû? | Who is it? |
Junguesû inise ki? | What is your name? |
Ña inise tsû ____. | My name is ____. |
kûi'khû | banana drink |
tsa'u | house |
a'i | person; Cofán person |
ña; aña'chu | meat |
na'e | river |
panzaye | to hunt |
khuvû | moon |
kue'je | sun |
Sample
Aʼingae passage
The following text is The North Wind and the Sun translated into Aʼingae.
Umbaʼkhûniʼsû
[õˈᵐba.kʰɨ.ni.sɨ
Fingian
ˈfĩ.ᵑɡiã
tuyakaen
ˈto.ja.kãe
kueʼjete
koḛ.ˈhe.te
afaʼkhuʼjeʼfa
a.ˈfã̰.kʰo.he.fa
majan de
ˈmã.jã.ⁿde
tiʼtshe
ˈti.t͡sʰɨi
kiʼanʼkhe,
ˈkĩ.jã.kʰẽ
tsunʼjeninde
ˈt͡sõ̰.hẽ.nĩ.ⁿde
jakanʼsû
ˈha.kã̰.sɨ
tuʼmbia
ˈto.ᵐbia̰
saʼvutshia
ˈsa̰.ʋɨ.t͡sʰia
upûiʼjenga
oˈpuḭ.hẽ.ᵑɡa
findiyeʼchu
fĩ.ˈdi.je.t͡ʃo
ji
ˈhi]
The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak.
Tansiʼfate tsa
[tã.ˈsḭ̃.fa.te.t͡sa
majan
ˈmã.hã
uʼtie
ˈo̰.tiḛ
tise
ˈti.se
jakansû
ˈha.kã.sɨ
findiyeʼchu
fi.ˈⁿdi.jḛ.t͡ʃo
upûiʼjema
o.ˈpuḭ.hẽ.mã
ushiʼchhachhu
u.ˈʃiʔ.t͡ʃʰa.t͡ʃʰo
tiʼtshe
kiʼañe
kĩ.jã.nẽ]
They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other.
Tsumbate,
[ˈt͡sõ.ᵐba.te
umbaniʼsû
ˈõ.ᵐba.ni.sɨ
fingian
fĩ.ᵑɡiã
ûʼfa kiaʼme
ˈɨ.fakiã̰.mẽ
tise
ˈti.se
ushaʼfanga,
ˈu.ʃa̰.fã̰.ᵑɡa
tsama
ˈt͡sa.ma
tise
ˈti.se
tiʼtshe
ˈti.t͡sʰe
ûfaʼni
ˈɨ.fa̰.ni
jakanʼsû
ˈha.kã.sɨ
tise
ˈti.se
upûiʼjema
o.ˈpuḭ.hẽ.mã
findi;
ˈfĩ.ⁿdi
usefaʼpanga
o.ˈse.faʔ.pã.ᵑɡa
umbakhûniʼsû
õ.ˈᵐba.kʰɨ.nḭ.su
fingian
ˈfĩ.ᵑɡiã
ushambipa
u.ˈʃã.ᵐbi.pa
anthe
ã.tʰḛ]
Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt.
Tsunsite
[ˈt͡sõ.si.te
kueʼje
ˈkoe.he
savutshi
ˈsaʔ.ʋɨ.t͡si
chanʼjun,
ˈt͡ʃã.hɨ
tsuinʼkhûte
t͡sɨ̃ḭ̃.kɨ.tḛ
favatsheyi
fa.ˈʋa.t͡sɨi
jacanʼsu
ˈha.kã̰.sɨ
tise
ˈti.se
upûiʼjema
o.ˈpuḭ.he.mã
ushicha
u.ˈʃi.t͡ʃʰa]
Then the Sun shone out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak.
Tsumbate
[ˈt͡so.ᵐbaʔ.tḛ
umbaniʼsû
ˈõ.ᵐba.ni.su
fingian
ˈfĩ.ᵑɡia
tansiʼñaʼchovedaʼya
tã.ˈsi.jã̰.t͡ʃo.ʋe.ˈda̰.ja
tsa
t͡sa
kueʼje
ˈkoḛ.he
khuaʼnginga
ˈkʰua̰.ᵑɡi.ᵑɡa
inʼjani
ˈĩʔ.ha.ni
tiʼtshe
ˈti.t͡sʰe
kianʼkhe.
ˈkĩ.jã.kʰḛ̃]
And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two.[8]
Further reading
- Dąbkowski, Maksymilian. 2021. Aʼingae (Ecuador and Colombia) - Language Snapshot. Language Documentation and Description 20, 1-12.
- Baldauf, R. B., Kaplan, R. B., King, K. A., & Haboud, M. (2007). Language planning and policy in Latin America: Language Planning and Policy in Ecuador (Vol. 1). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
- Borman, M. B. (1962). "Cofan phonemes". In Elson, Benjamin; Peeke, Catherine (eds.). Studies in Ecuadorian Indian languages: I. SIL International Publications in Linguistics. pp. 45–59. Retrieved March 10, 2017.
- Borman, M. B. (1976). Vocabulario cofán: Cofán-castellano, castellano-cofán. (Serie de vocabularios indígenas Mariano Silva y Aceves, 19). Quito: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
- Borman, M. B. (1977). "Cofan paragraph structure and function". SIL International Publications in Linguistics. 52 (3): 289–338. Retrieved March 10, 2017.
- Borman, M. B. (1990). Cofan cosmology and history as revealed in their legends: The Cofan Alphabet. Quito, Ecuador: Instituto Linguistico de Verano.[12]
- Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian, eds. (2016). "Cofán". Glottolog 2.7. Jena: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
- Gijn, E. V., Haude, K., & Muysken, P. (2011). Subordination in native South-American languages. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Pub. Co.[13]
- Klein, H. E., & Stark, L. R. (2011). South American Indian languages: retrospect and prospect. Austin: University of Texas Press.
References
- ^ Cofán at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022)
- ^ Rivet, Paul (1924). Antoine Meillet; Marcel Cohen (eds.). "Langues américaines". Langues de l'Amérique du Sud et des Antilles. Les langues du monde (in French). 2. Paris: Société Linguistique de Paris.
- ^ Greenberg. Joseph H. (1960), The general classification of Central and South American languages. In: Anthony Wallace ed., Men and cultures: Selected papers of the 5th International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences (1956). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 791-794.
- ^ Adelaar, Willem F.H. with Pieter C. Muysken (2004), The languages of the Andes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 454.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al Fischer, Rafael; Hengeveld, Kees, Aʼingae (Cofán/Kofán) (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on Sep 29, 2022
- ^ "Las construcciones relativas 'superlibres' en lenguas mayas ['Super-free' relative constructions in Mayan languages]" -- AnderBois, Scott, Miguel Oscar Chan Dzul, Jessica Coon, Juan Jesús Vázquez Álvarez, Conference on Indigenous Languages of South America (CILLA) IX, The University of Texas at Austin.
- ^ a b c d Dąbkowski, Maksymilian (2021). "Aʼingae (Ecuador and Colombia) - Language Snapshot". Language Documentation and Description. 20: 1–12.
- ^ a b c d e f Repetti-Ludlow, Chiara; Zhang, Haoru; Lucitante, Hugo; AnderBois, Scott; Sanker, Chelsea (December 2020). "Aʼingae (Cofán)". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 50 (3): 431–444. doi:10.1017/S0025100319000082. ISSN 0025-1003. S2CID 198596111.
- ^ a b c "Aʼingae Language Documentation Project". cofan-aldp.github.io. Retrieved 2021-11-15.
- ^ a b Dąbkowski, Maksymilian (2021). "Dominance is non-representational: evidence from Aʼingae verbal stress". Phonology. 38 (4): 611–650. doi:10.1017/S0952675721000348. ISSN 0952-6757. S2CID 246999014.
- ^ Borman, M. B. (1962). Elson, Banjamin (ed.). "Cofán Phonemes" (PDF). Studies in Ecuadorian Indian Languages: I. Instituto Lingüístico de Verano: 45–59. doi:10.1086/465008.
- ^ Borman, M. B. (1990-01-01). Cofan cosmology and history as revealed in their legends. Instituto Linguistico de Verano.
- ^ Gijn, Rik van; Haude, Katharina; Muysken, Pieter (2011-04-29). Subordination in Native South American Languages. John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 9789027287090.