Noricum: Difference between revisions

Province of Noricum
Provincia Noricum
Province of Noricum Provincia Noricum
Province of the Roman Empire
16 BC–476
	; The province of Noricum in 125, in the reign of emperor Hadrian.
Capital	Virunum
Historical era	Antiquity
• Incorporated into the province	16 BC
• Divided to Noricum Ripense and Noricum Mediterraneum	c. 296
• Odoacer's conquest and incorporated with his Italian Realm	476
Preceded by	Succeeded by
	Kingdom of Noricum
Noricum Ripense
Noricum Mediterraneum
Kingdom of Italy

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Noricum (/ˈnɒrɪkəm/) is the Latin name for the kingdom or federation of tribes^[1] that included most of modern Austria and part of Slovenia. In the first century AD, it became a province of the Roman Empire. Its borders were the Danube to the north, Raetia and Vindelici to the west, Pannonia to the east and south-east, and Italia (Venetia et Histria) to the south. The kingdom was founded around 400 BC, and had its capital at the royal residence at Virunum on the Magdalensberg.^[2]^[3]

Area and population

Around 800 BC, the region was inhabited mostly by the people of the Hallstatt culture. Around 450 BC, they merged with the people of other areas in the south-western regions of Germany and eastern France.

The country is mountainous and rich in iron and salt. It supplied material for the manufacturing of arms in Pannonia, Moesia, and northern Italy. The famous Noric steel was largely used in the making of Roman weapons (e.g. Horace, Odes, i.16.9-10: Noricus ensis, "a Noric sword"). Gold^[4] and salt^{[citation needed]} were found in considerable quantities. The plant called saliunca (the wild nard, a relative of the lavender) grew in abundance and was used as a perfume according to Pliny the Elder.^[5]

The inhabitants developed a culture rich in art, salt mining, cattle breeding, and agriculture. When part of the area became a Roman province, the Romans introduced water management and the already important trade relations between the people north and south of the Alps increased.

Archaeological research, particularly in the cemeteries of Hallstatt, has shown that a vigorous civilization was in the area centuries before recorded history. The graves contained weapons and ornaments from the Bronze Age, through the period of transition, up to the Hallstatt culture, i.e., the fully developed older period of the Iron Age.^{[citation needed]}

Language

The Noric language is attested in only fragmentary inscriptions, one from Ptuj^[6]^[7] and two from Grafenstein,^[8]^[9] neither of which provide enough information for any conclusions about the nature of the language.^[6]^[8]

History

Steel for Roman weaponry

The kingdom of Noricum was a major provider of weaponry for the Roman army from the mid-Republic onwards. Roman swords were made of the best-quality steel then available from this region, the chalybs Noricus. The strength of steel is determined by its composition and heat treatment. The wrought iron produced in the Greco-Roman world was too soft for tools and weapons. Ore from Noricum, by contrast, could yield a superior product. The ore needed to be rich in manganese (an element which remains essential in modern steelmaking processes), and contain little or no phosphorus, which weakens steel.^[10] The ore mined in Carinthia (S. Noricum) fulfilled both criteria particularly well.^[11] The Noricum discovered their ore made superior steel around 500 BC and built a major steel industry.^[12]

At Magdalensberg, a major production and trading centre, specialised blacksmiths crafted metal products and weapons. The finished arms were exported to Aquileia, a Roman colony founded in 180 BC.

From 200 BC, the Noricum tribes gradually united into a kingdom, known as the Regnum Noricum, with its capital at a place called Noreia. Noricum became a key ally of the Roman Republic, providing high-quality weapons and tools in exchange for military protection. This was demonstrated in 113 BC, when Teutones invaded Noricum. In response, the Roman consul Gnaeus Papirius Carbo led an army over the Alps to attack the tribes at the Noreia.

Roman rule

Noricum was incorporated into the Roman Empire in 16 BC. For a long time previously, the Noricans had enjoyed independence under princes of their own and carried on commerce with the Romans. In 48 BC they took the side of Julius Caesar in the civil war against Pompey. In 16 BC, having joined with the Pannonians in invading Histria, they were defeated by Publius Silius Nerva, proconsul of Illyricum.^{[citation needed]} Thereafter, Noricum was called a province, although it was not organized as such and remained a kingdom with the title of regnum Noricum, yet under the control of an imperial procurator.^{[citation needed]} Under the reign of Emperor Claudius (41–54) the Noricum Kingdom was ultimately incorporated into the Roman Empire apparently without offering resistance. It was not until the reign of Antoninus Pius that the Second Legion, Pia (later renamed Italica) was stationed in Noricum, and the commander of the legion became the governor of the province.^{[citation needed]}

Under Diocletian (245–313), Noricum was divided into Noricum ripense ("Noricum along the river", the northern part southward from the Danube), and Noricum mediterraneum ("landlocked Noricum", the southern, more mountainous district). The dividing line ran along the central part of the eastern Alps.^[13] Each division was under a praeses, and both belonged to the diocese of Illyricum in the Praetorian prefecture of Italy. It was in this time (304 AD) that a Christian serving as a military officer in the province suffered martyrdom for the sake of his faith, later canonised as Saint Florian.^[14]

The Roman colonies and chief towns were Virunum (near Maria Saal to the north of Klagenfurt), Teurnia (near Spittal an der Drau), Flavia Solva (near Leibnitz), Celeia (Celje) in today's Slovenia, Juvavum (Salzburg), Ovilava (Wels), Lauriacum (Lorch at the mouth of the Enns, the ancient Anisus).

Knowledge of Roman Noricum has been decisively expanded by the work of Richard Knabl, an Austrian epigrapher of the 19th century.

The transition from Roman to barbarian rule in Noricum is well documented in Eugippius' Life of Saint Severinus, providing material for analogies for this process in other regions where primary sources from the period are lacking.^[15]

In modern politics

In 1919, Heinrich Lammasch, the last prime minister of Imperial Austria, proposed to give the young republic the name of Norische Republik or Noric Republic,^[16] because the ancient borders were similar to those of the new state, which—at the time—did not wish to be considered the heir of the Habsburg monarchy, but an independent, neutral and peaceful state.^[17]

Episcopal sees

Episcopal sees of Noricum that are now listed in the Annuario Pontificio as titular sees include:^[18]

Citations

^ Mackensen, Michael (1975). "The state of research on the 'Norican' silver coinage". World Archaeology. 6 (3): 249–275. doi:10.1080/00438243.1975.9979607. JSTOR 124094.
^ Heather, Peter (2010). The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History. Macmillan. p. 407.
^ Cunliffe, Barry (1997). The Ancient Celts. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. 218. ISBN 978-0-19-815010-7.
^ From a statement of Polybius, in his own time in consequence of the great output of gold from a mine in Noricum, gold lost one-third of its value. Ridgeway, William (1892). The Origin of Metallic Currency and Weight Standards. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. 139.
^ Naturalis Historia xxi. 20.43)
^ ^a ^b Eichner, Heiner; Istenič, Janka & Lovenjak, Milan (1994). "Ein römerzeitlisches Keramikgefäs au Ptuj (Pettau, Poetovio) in Slowien mit Inschrift in unbekanntem Alphabet und epichorischer (vermutlich keltischer) Sprache" (PDF). Arheološki Vestnik (in German). 45: 131–142. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 December 2015.
^ "Vase de Ptuj". Encyclopédie de l'arbre celtique. Archived from the original on 29 June 2008.
^ ^a ^b Eska, Joseph F. & Evans, D. Ellis (2009). "Continental Celtic". In Ball, Martin J. & Müller, Nicole (eds.). The Celtic languages (second ed.). London: Routledge. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-415-42279-6.
^ "Tuile de Grafenstein". Encyclopédie de l'arbre celtique. Archived from the original on 29 June 2008.
^ Buchwald (2005) 124
^ Buchwald (2005) 115
^ Healy (1978) 236
^ "The province of Noricum Ripense extended along the right or southern bank of the Danube, between the river and the Noric Alps, and was bounded on one side by Raetia Secunda and the river Inn (Aenus) and on the other by the confines of Pannonia Superior—the district included in the modern province of Carinthia in Austria. Noricum Mediterraneum lay directly to the south, beyond the Noric Alps." Mierow, Charles C. (1915). "Eugippius and the Closing Years of the Province of Noricum Ripense". Classical Philology. 10 (2): 166–187. doi:10.1086/359963. JSTOR 261764.
^ Stülz, Jodok [in German] (1835). Geschichte des regulirten Chorherrn-Stiftes St. Florian: ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Landes Österreich ob der Enns (in German). Linz: Haslinger. pp. 2–3.
^ Heather, Peter (2005). The Fall of the Roman Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195159547.
^ Anna Maria Drabek, Der Österreichbegriff und sein Wandel im Lauf der Geschichte, in: Marktgemeinde Neuhofen/Ybbs (ed.): Ostarrichi Gedenkstätte Neuhofen/Ybbs, no date (1980), pp. 32–41
^ Dieter Köberl, Zum Wohle Österreichs. Vor 90 Jahren starb Heinrich Lammasch, in: Die Furche, 18 February 2010
^ Annuario Pontificio 2013 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2013 ISBN 978-88-209-9070-1), "Sedi titolari", pp. 819–1013

General and cited references

Géza Alföldy. Noricum. Routledge & K. Paul, 1974
Healy, John F., Mining and Metallurgy in the Greek and Roman World, Thames and Hudson, 1978.
Strobel, Kartl (2012): "Das Regnum Noricum, die sogenannte Norische Münzprägung und Rom: Frühe Kontakte als Vorspiel von Annexion und Romanisierung – Fiktion oder Realität? Mit einem Appendix zur Noreia-Frage" in "Archaeologia Austriaca" Vol. 96. pp. 11–34
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Noricum". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 19 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 748.

External links

Noricum (in German)
Noricum, its cities and traffic routes in the 2nd century

[1] Mackensen, Michael (1975). "The state of research on the 'Norican' silver coinage". World Archaeology. 6 (3): 249–275. doi:10.1080/00438243.1975.9979607. JSTOR 124094.

[2] Heather, Peter (2010). The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History. Macmillan. p. 407.

[3] Cunliffe, Barry (1997). The Ancient Celts. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. 218. ISBN 978-0-19-815010-7.

[4] From a statement of Polybius, in his own time in consequence of the great output of gold from a mine in Noricum, gold lost one-third of its value. Ridgeway, William (1892). The Origin of Metallic Currency and Weight Standards. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. 139.

[5] Naturalis Historia xxi. 20.43)

[Eichner-6] Eichner, Heiner; Istenič, Janka & Lovenjak, Milan (1994). "Ein römerzeitlisches Keramikgefäs au Ptuj (Pettau, Poetovio) in Slowien mit Inschrift in unbekanntem Alphabet und epichorischer (vermutlich keltischer) Sprache" (PDF). Arheološki Vestnik (in German). 45: 131–142. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 December 2015.

[7] "Vase de Ptuj". Encyclopédie de l'arbre celtique. Archived from the original on 29 June 2008.

[Eska-8] Eska, Joseph F. & Evans, D. Ellis (2009). "Continental Celtic". In Ball, Martin J. & Müller, Nicole (eds.). The Celtic languages (second ed.). London: Routledge. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-415-42279-6.

[9] "Tuile de Grafenstein". Encyclopédie de l'arbre celtique. Archived from the original on 29 June 2008.

[Buchwald_2005_124-10] Buchwald (2005) 124

[11] Buchwald (2005) 115

[12] Healy (1978) 236

[13] "The province of Noricum Ripense extended along the right or southern bank of the Danube, between the river and the Noric Alps, and was bounded on one side by Raetia Secunda and the river Inn (Aenus) and on the other by the confines of Pannonia Superior—the district included in the modern province of Carinthia in Austria. Noricum Mediterraneum lay directly to the south, beyond the Noric Alps." Mierow, Charles C. (1915). "Eugippius and the Closing Years of the Province of Noricum Ripense". Classical Philology. 10 (2): 166–187. doi:10.1086/359963. JSTOR 261764.

[14] Stülz, Jodok [in German] (1835). Geschichte des regulirten Chorherrn-Stiftes St. Florian: ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Landes Österreich ob der Enns (in German). Linz: Haslinger. pp. 2–3.

[15] Heather, Peter (2005). The Fall of the Roman Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195159547.

[16] Anna Maria Drabek, Der Österreichbegriff und sein Wandel im Lauf der Geschichte, in: Marktgemeinde Neuhofen/Ybbs (ed.): Ostarrichi Gedenkstätte Neuhofen/Ybbs, no date (1980), pp. 32–41

[17] Dieter Köberl, Zum Wohle Österreichs. Vor 90 Jahren starb Heinrich Lammasch, in: Die Furche, 18 February 2010

[18] Annuario Pontificio 2013 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2013 ISBN 978-88-209-9070-1), "Sedi titolari", pp. 819–1013

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+{{Short description|Polity in modern Austria}}
 {{other uses}}
 {{more citations needed|date=August 2013}}
+{{Infobox former subdivision
+|native_name            = {{big|{{aut|Provincia Noricum}}}}
+|conventional_long_name = Province of Noricum
+|common_name            = Noricum
+|subdivision            = [[Roman province|Province]]
+|nation                 = the [[Roman Empire]]
+|capital                = [[Virunum]]
+|year_start             = 16 BC
+|year_end               = 476
+|event_start            = Incorporated into the province
+|event_end              = [[Odoacer]]'s conquest and incorporated with his [[Odoacer#Duke of Italy|Italian Realm]]
+|event1                 = Divided to Noricum Ripense and Noricum Mediterraneum
+|date_event1            = {{circa|296}}
+|era                    = [[Ancient history|Antiquity]]
+|image_map              = Roman Empire - Noricum (125 AD).svg
+|image_map_caption      = The province of Noricum in 125, in the reign of emperor [[Hadrian]].
+<!-- Flag navigation: Preceding and succeeding entities "p1" to "p5" and "s1" to "s8" -->
+|p1                     = Regnum Noricum{{!}}Kingdom of Noricum
+|s1                     = Noricum Ripense
+|flag_s1                = Vexilloid of the Roman Empire.svg
+|s2                     = Noricum Mediterraneum
+|flag_s2                = Vexilloid of the Roman Empire.svg
+|s3                     = Odoacer#King of Italy{{!}}Kingdom of Italy
+}}
 [[File:Noricum SPQR.png|thumb|300px|Roman province of Noricum highlighted]]
 {{History of Austria}}
 {{History of Slovenia}}
-'''Noricum''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|n|ɒr|ɪ|k|ə|m}}) is the [[Latin]] name for the [[Celts|Celtic]] kingdom or federation of tribes<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Mackensen, Michael |year=1975 |title=The state of research on the ‘Norican’ silver coinage |journal=World Archaeology |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=249–275 |jstor=124094|doi=10.1080/00438243.1975.9979607}}</ref> that included most of modern [[Austria]] and part of [[Slovenia]]. In the first century AD, it became a [[Roman province|province]] of the [[Roman Empire]]. Its borders were the [[Danube]] to the north, ''[[Raetia]]'' and ''[[Vindelicia]]'' to the west, [[Pannonia]] to the east and southeast, and [[Italy (Roman Empire)|''Italia'']] (''[[Triveneto|Venetia et Histria]]'') to the south. The kingdom was founded around 400 BC, and had its capital at the royal residence at [[Virunum]] on the [[Magdalensberg]].<ref>{{Cite book|author=Heather, Peter |year=2010 |title=The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History |publisher=Macmillan |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_Jntu21N9K0C&pg=PA407 407]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|author=Cunliffe, Barry |year=1997 |title=The Ancient Celts |location=Oxford, England |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=218 |isbn=978-0-19-815010-7}}</ref>
+'''Noricum''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|n|ɒr|ɪ|k|ə|m}}) is the [[Latin]] name for the  kingdom or federation of tribes<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Mackensen, Michael |year=1975 |title=The state of research on the 'Norican' silver coinage |journal=World Archaeology |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=249–275 |jstor=124094|doi=10.1080/00438243.1975.9979607}}</ref> that included most of modern [[Austria]] and part of [[Slovenia]]. In the first century AD, it became a [[Roman province|province]] of the [[Roman Empire]]. Its borders were the [[Danube]] to the north, [[Raetia]] and [[Vindelici]] to the west, [[Pannonia]] to the east and south-east, and [[Roman Italy|Italia]] ([[Venetia et Histria]]) to the south. The kingdom was founded around 400 BC, and had its capital at the royal residence at [[Virunum]] on the [[Magdalensberg]].<ref>{{Cite book |author=Heather |first=Peter |title=The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History |publisher=Macmillan |year=2010 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_Jntu21N9K0C&pg=PA407 407] |authorlink=Peter Heather}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author=Cunliffe |first=Barry |title=The Ancient Celts |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-19-815010-7 |location=Oxford, England |page=218 |authorlink=Barry Cunliffe}}</ref>
 ==Area and population==
-Around 800 BC, the region was inhabited mostly by the people of the local Celtic [[Hallstatt culture]]. Around 450 BC, they merged with the people of the other core Celtic areas in the south-western regions of Germany and [[La Tène culture|eastern France]].
+Around 800 BC, the region was inhabited mostly by the people of the  [[Hallstatt culture]]. Around 450 BC, they merged with the people of other areas in the south-western regions of Germany and [[La Tène culture|eastern France]].
-The country is mountainous and rich in iron and salt. It supplied material for the manufacturing of arms in Pannonia, [[Moesia]], and northern Italy. The famous [[Noric steel]] was largely used in the making of Roman weapons (e.g. [[Horace]], ''Odes'', i.16.9-10: ''Noricus ensis'', "a Noric sword"). Gold<ref>From a statement of Polybius, in his own time in consequence of the great output of gold from a mine in Noricum, gold went down one-third in value. {{Cite book|author=Ridgeway,  William |year=1892 |title=The Origin of Metallic Currency and Weight Standards |location=Oxford, England |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=139|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lqkTAAAAQAAJ}}</ref> and salt{{Citation needed|date=August 2013}} were found in considerable quantities.  The plant called [[saliunca]] (the wild or Celtic [[Nard (plant)|nard]], a relative of the lavender) grew in abundance and was used as a [[perfume]] according to [[Pliny the Elder]].<ref>''[[Pliny's Natural History|Naturalis Historia]]'' xxi. 20.43)</ref>
+The country is mountainous and rich in iron and salt. It supplied material for the manufacturing of arms in Pannonia, [[Moesia]], and northern Italy. The famous [[Noric steel]] was largely used in the making of Roman weapons (e.g. [[Horace]], ''Odes'', i.16.9-10: ''Noricus ensis'', "a Noric sword"). Gold<ref>From a statement of Polybius, in his own time in consequence of the great output of gold from a mine in Noricum, gold lost one-third of its value. {{Cite book|author=Ridgeway, William |year=1892 |title=The Origin of Metallic Currency and Weight Standards |location=Oxford, England |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.70243/page/n153 139]|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.70243}}</ref> and salt{{Citation needed|date=August 2013}} were found in considerable quantities. The plant called saliunca (the wild [[Nard (plant)|nard]], a relative of the lavender) grew in abundance and was used as a [[perfume]] according to [[Pliny the Elder]].<ref>''[[Pliny's Natural History|Naturalis Historia]]'' xxi. 20.43)</ref>
-The Celtic inhabitants developed a culture rich in art, cattle breeding, salt mining and agriculture. When part of the area became a Roman province, the Romans introduced water management ([[Aqueduct (water supply)|Aqueduct]]) and the already vivid trade relations between the people north and south of the alps boosted - [[Noric steel]] was famous for its quality and hardness.
+The inhabitants developed a culture rich in art, salt mining, cattle breeding, and agriculture. When part of the area became a [[Roman province]], the Romans introduced water management and the already important trade relations between the people north and south of the Alps increased.
-Archaeological research, particularly in the cemeteries of [[Hallstatt]], has shown that a vigorous Celtic civilization was in the area centuries before recorded history, but the Celtic Hallstatt civilization was a cultural manifestation prior to the other Celtic invasions, The Hallstatt graves contained weapons and ornaments from the [[Bronze Age]], through the period of transition, up to the "Hallstatt culture", i.e., the fully developed older period of the [[Iron Age]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2013}}
+Archaeological research, particularly in the cemeteries of [[Hallstatt]], has shown that a vigorous civilization was in the area centuries before recorded history. The graves contained weapons and ornaments from the [[Bronze Age]], through the period of transition, up to the Hallstatt culture, i.e., the fully developed older period of the [[Iron Age]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2013}}
 ==Language==
-The [[Noric language]] is attested in only fragmentary inscriptions, one from [[Ptuj]]<ref name="Eichner">{{Cite journal |author1=Eichner, Heiner |author2=Istenič, Janka |author3=Lovenjak, Milan |lastauthoramp=yes |year=1994 |title=Ein römerzeitlisches Keramikgefäs au Ptuj (Pettau, Poetovio) in Slowien mit Inschrift in unbekanntem Alphabet und epichorischer (vermutlich keltischer) Sprache |language=de |journal=Arheološki vestnik |volume=45 |pages=131–142 |url=http://av.zrc-sazu.si/pdf/45/AV_45_1994_Eichner_et_al.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222143217/http://av.zrc-sazu.si/pdf/45/AV_45_1994_Eichner_et_al.pdf |archivedate=22 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Vase de Ptuj |work=Encyclopédie de l'arbre celtique |url=http://www.arbre-celtique.com/encyclopedie/vase-de-ptuj-4454.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080629223229/http://www.arbre-celtique.com/encyclopedie/vase-de-ptuj-4454.htm |archivedate=29 June 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> and two from [[Grafenstein]],<ref name="Eska">{{Cite book|chapter=Continental Celtic |author1=Eska, Joseph F.  |author2=Evans, D. Ellis  |lastauthoramp=yes |editor=Ball, Martin J. |editor2=Müller, Nicole |year=2009 |title=The Celtic languages |edition=second |location=London |publisher=Routledge |page=42 |isbn=978-0-415-42279-6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Tuile de Grafenstein |work=Encyclopédie de l'arbre celtique |url=http://www.arbre-celtique.com/encyclopedie/tuile-de-grafenstein-4455.htm  |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080629223213/http://www.arbre-celtique.com/encyclopedie/tuile-de-grafenstein-4455.htm |archivedate=29 June 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> neither of which provide enough information for any conclusions about the nature of the language.<ref name="Eichner" /><ref name="Eska" />
+The [[Noric language]] is attested in only fragmentary inscriptions, one from [[Ptuj]]<ref name="Eichner">{{Cite journal |author1=Eichner, Heiner |author2=Istenič, Janka |author3=Lovenjak, Milan |name-list-style=amp |year=1994 |title=Ein römerzeitlisches Keramikgefäs au Ptuj (Pettau, Poetovio) in Slowien mit Inschrift in unbekanntem Alphabet und epichorischer (vermutlich keltischer) Sprache |language=de |journal=Arheološki Vestnik |volume=45 |pages=131–142 |url=http://av.zrc-sazu.si/pdf/45/AV_45_1994_Eichner_et_al.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222143217/http://av.zrc-sazu.si/pdf/45/AV_45_1994_Eichner_et_al.pdf |archive-date=22 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Vase de Ptuj |work=Encyclopédie de l'arbre celtique |url=http://www.arbre-celtique.com/encyclopedie/vase-de-ptuj-4454.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080629223229/http://www.arbre-celtique.com/encyclopedie/vase-de-ptuj-4454.htm |archive-date=29 June 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> and two from [[Grafenstein]],<ref name="Eska">{{Cite book|chapter=Continental Celtic |author1=Eska, Joseph F. |author2=Evans, D. Ellis |name-list-style=amp |editor=Ball, Martin J. |editor2=Müller, Nicole |year=2009 |title=The Celtic languages |edition=second |location=London |publisher=Routledge |page=42 |isbn=978-0-415-42279-6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Tuile de Grafenstein |work=Encyclopédie de l'arbre celtique |url=http://www.arbre-celtique.com/encyclopedie/tuile-de-grafenstein-4455.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080629223213/http://www.arbre-celtique.com/encyclopedie/tuile-de-grafenstein-4455.htm |archive-date=29 June 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> neither of which provide enough information for any conclusions about the nature of the language.<ref name="Eichner"/><ref name="Eska"/>
-==Steel for Roman weaponry==
+==History==
+===Steel for Roman weaponry===
+[[File:Noricum Kugelreiter type 88000571.jpg|thumb|Coin of Noricum, mid-2nd century BC]]
-{{Off topic|date=March 2018}}
-The kingdom of Noricum was a major provider of weaponry for the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] armies from the [[Roman army of the mid-Republic|mid-Republic]] onwards. [[gladius|Roman swords]] were made of the best-quality steel then available from this region, the ''[[Noric steel|chalybs Noricus]]''.
-The strength of iron is determined by its [[carbon]] content. The [[wrought iron]] produced in the [[Greco-Roman world]] contained traces of carbon and was too soft for tools and weapons. It needed at least 1.5% carbon content. The Roman method of achieving this was to repeatedly heat the wrought iron to a temperature of over 800 C (i.e. to "white heat") and hammer it in a [[charcoal]] fire, causing the iron to absorb carbon from the charcoal.<ref>Healy (1978) 231</ref> This technique developed empirically: there is no evidence ancient iron producers understood the chemistry. This rudimentary methods of carburisation made the quality of iron ore critical to the production of good steel.
+The kingdom of Noricum was a major provider of weaponry for the [[Roman army]] from the [[Roman army of the mid-Republic|mid-Republic]] onwards. [[Gladius|Roman swords]] were made of the best-quality steel then available from this region, the ''[[Noric steel|chalybs Noricus]]''. The strength of steel is determined by its composition and heat treatment. The [[wrought iron]] produced in the [[Greco-Roman world]] was too soft for tools and weapons. Ore from Noricum, by contrast, could yield a superior product. The ore needed to be rich in [[manganese]] (an element which remains essential in modern steelmaking processes), and contain little or no [[phosphorus]], which weakens steel.<ref name="Buchwald 2005 124">Buchwald (2005) 124</ref> The ore mined in [[Carinthia]] (S. Noricum) fulfilled both criteria particularly well.<ref>Buchwald (2005) 115</ref> The Noricum discovered their ore made superior steel around 500 BC and built a major steel industry.<ref>Healy (1978) 236</ref>
-The ore needed to be rich in [[manganese]] (an element which remains essential in modern steelmaking processes), and contain little or no [[phosphorus]], which weakens steel.<ref name="Buchwald 2005 124">Buchwald (2005) 124</ref> The ore mined in [[Carinthia]] (S. Noricum) fulfilled both criteria particularly well.<ref>Buchwald (2005) 115</ref> The Celts of Noricum discovered their ore made superior steel around 500 BC and built a major steel industry.<ref>Healy (1978) 236</ref>
 At [[Magdalensberg]], a major production and trading centre, specialised blacksmiths crafted metal products and weapons. The finished arms were exported to [[Aquileia]], a Roman colony founded in 180 BC.
-From 200 BC the Noricum tribes gradually united into Celtic kingdom, known as the ''regnum Noricum'', with its capital at a place called [[Noreia]]. Noricum became a key ally of the Roman Republic, providing high-quality weapons and tools in exchange for military protection. This was demonstrated in 113 BC, when [[Teutones]] invaded Noricum. In response, the Roman consul [[Gnaeus Papirius Carbo (consul 113 BC)|Gnaeus Papirius Carbo]] led an army over the Alps to attack the Germanic tribes at the [[Battle of Noreia|Noreia]].
+From 200 BC, the Noricum tribes gradually united into a kingdom, known as the [[Regnum Noricum]], with its capital at a place called [[Noreia]]. Noricum became a key ally of the Roman Republic, providing high-quality weapons and tools in exchange for military protection. This was demonstrated in 113 BC, when [[Teutones]] invaded Noricum. In response, the Roman consul [[Gnaeus Papirius Carbo (consul 113 BC)|Gnaeus Papirius Carbo]] led an army over the Alps to attack the tribes at the [[Battle of Noreia|Noreia]].
-==Roman rule==
+===Roman rule===
-Noricum was incorporated into the Roman Empire in 16 BC. For a long time previously, the Noricans had enjoyed independence under [[prince]]s of their own and carried on commerce with the Romans. In 48 BC they took the side of [[Julius Caesar]] in the civil war against [[Pompey]]. In 16 BC, having joined with the Pannonians in invading [[Istria|Histria]], they were defeated by [[Publius Silius Nerva]], proconsul of [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]].{{citation needed|date=August 2013}} Thereafter, Noricum was called a province, although it was not organized as such and remained a [[monarchy|kingdom]] with the title of ''regnum Noricum'', yet under the control of an imperial [[Promagistrate|procurator]].{{citation needed|date=August 2013}} Under the reign of Emperor [[Claudius]] (41–54) the Noricum Kingdom was ultimately incorporated into the Roman Empire apparently without offering resistance. It was not until the reign of [[Antoninus Pius]] that [[Legio II Italica|the Second Legion, ''Pia'']] (later renamed ''Italica'') was stationed in Noricum, and the commander of the legion became the governor of the province.{{citation needed|date=August 2013}}
+Noricum was incorporated into the Roman Empire in 16 BC. For a long time previously, the Noricans had enjoyed independence under [[prince]]s of their own and carried on commerce with the Romans. In 48 BC they took the side of [[Julius Caesar]] in the civil war against [[Pompey]]. In 16 BC, having joined with the Pannonians in invading [[Istria|Histria]], they were defeated by [[Publius Silius Nerva]], proconsul of [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]].{{citation needed|date=August 2013}} Thereafter, Noricum was called a province, although it was not organized as such and remained a [[monarchy|kingdom]] with the title of ''regnum Noricum'', yet under the control of an imperial [[Promagistrate|procurator]].{{citation needed|date=August 2013}} Under the reign of Emperor [[Claudius]] (41–54) the Noricum Kingdom was ultimately incorporated into the Roman Empire apparently without offering resistance. It was not until the reign of [[Antoninus Pius]] that the [[Legio II Italica|Second Legion, ''Pia'']] (later renamed ''Italica'') was stationed in Noricum, and the commander of the legion became the governor of the province.{{citation needed|date=August 2013}}
-Under [[Diocletian]] (245–313), Noricum was divided into ''Noricum ripense'' ("Noricum along the river", the northern part southward from the [[Danube]]), and ''Noricum mediterraneum'' ("landlocked Noricum", the southern, more mountainous district). The dividing line ran along the central part of the eastern Alps.<ref>"The province of Noricum Ripense extended along the right or southern bank of the Danube, between the river and the Noric Alps, and was bounded on one side by [[Raetia|Raetia Secunda]] and the [[Inn (river)|river Inn]] (Aenus) and on the other by the confines of [[Pannonia Superior]] — the district included in the modern province of Carinthia in Austria. Noricum Mediterraneum lay directly to the south, beyond the Noric Alps." {{Cite journal|author=Mierow, Charles C. |author-link=Charles Christopher Mierow |year=1915 |title=Eugippius and the Closing Years of the Province of Noricum Ripense |journal=Classical Philology |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=166&ndash;187|jstor=261764|url=https://archive.org/details/jstor-261764}}</ref> Each division was under a [[praeses]], and both belonged to the [[diocese of Pannonia|diocese of Illyricum]] in the [[Praetorian prefecture of Italy]]. It was in this time (304 A.D.) that a Christian serving as a military officer in the province suffered martyrdom for the sake of his faith, later canonised as [[Saint Florian]].<ref>{{Cite book|author=Stülz, Jodok |author-link=:de:Jodocus Stülz |year=1835 |title=Geschichte des regulirten Chorherrn-Stiftes St. Florian: ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Landes Österreich ob der Enns |language=de |location=Linz |publisher=Haslinger |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=CrMDAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA2 2&ndash;3]}}</ref>
+Under [[Diocletian]] (245–313), Noricum was divided into ''Noricum ripense'' ("Noricum along the river", the northern part southward from the [[Danube]]), and ''Noricum mediterraneum'' ("landlocked Noricum", the southern, more mountainous district). The dividing line ran along the central part of the eastern Alps.<ref>"The province of Noricum Ripense extended along the right or southern bank of the Danube, between the river and the Noric Alps, and was bounded on one side by [[Raetia|Raetia Secunda]] and the [[Inn (river)|river Inn]] (Aenus) and on the other by the confines of [[Pannonia Superior]]—the district included in the modern province of Carinthia in Austria. Noricum Mediterraneum lay directly to the south, beyond the Noric Alps." {{Cite journal |author=Mierow, Charles C. |authorlink=Charles Christopher Mierow |year=1915 |title=Eugippius and the Closing Years of the Province of Noricum Ripense |url=https://archive.org/details/jstor-261764 |journal=Classical Philology |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=166–187 |doi=10.1086/359963 |jstor=261764 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Each division was under a [[praeses]], and both belonged to the [[diocese of Pannonia|diocese of Illyricum]] in the [[Praetorian prefecture of Italy]]. It was in this time (304 AD) that a Christian serving as a military officer in the province suffered martyrdom for the sake of his faith, later canonised as [[Saint Florian]].<ref>{{Cite book|author=Stülz, Jodok |authorlink=:de:Jodocus Stülz |year=1835 |title=Geschichte des regulirten Chorherrn-Stiftes St. Florian: ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Landes Österreich ob der Enns |language=de |location=Linz |publisher=Haslinger |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=CrMDAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA2 2–3]}}</ref>
-The Roman colonies and chief towns were ''[[Virunum]]'' (near [[Maria Saal]] to the north of [[Klagenfurt]]), ''[[Teurnia]]'' (near [[Spittal an der Drau]]), ''[[Flavia Solva]]'' (near [[Leibnitz]]), ''Celeia'' ([[Celje]]) in today's Slovenia, ''Juvavum'' ([[Salzburg]]), ''Ovilava'' ([[Wels]]),  ''Lauriacum'' ([[Enns (town)#Geography|Lorch]] at the mouth of the [[Enns (river)|Enns]], the ancient ''[[Latin names of European rivers|Anisus]]'').
+The Roman colonies and chief towns were ''[[Virunum]]'' (near [[Maria Saal]] to the north of [[Klagenfurt]]), ''[[Teurnia]]'' (near [[Spittal an der Drau]]), ''[[Flavia Solva]]'' (near [[Leibnitz]]), ''Celeia'' ([[Celje]]) in today's Slovenia, ''Juvavum'' ([[Salzburg]]), ''Ovilava'' ([[Wels]]), ''Lauriacum'' ([[Enns (town)#Geography|Lorch]] at the mouth of the [[Enns (river)|Enns]], the ancient ''[[Latin names of European rivers|Anisus]]'').
 Knowledge of Roman Noricum has been decisively expanded by the work of [[Richard Knabl]], an Austrian [[Epigraphy|epigrapher]] of the 19th century.
-The transition from Roman to barbarian rule in Noricum is well documented in [[Eugippius]]' Life of [[Severinus of Noricum|Saint Severinus]], providing material for analogies for this process in other regions where primary sources from the period are lacking.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Fall of the Roman Empire|last=Heather|first=Peter|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0195159547|location=Oxford|pages=}}</ref>
+The transition from Roman to barbarian rule in Noricum is well documented in [[Eugippius]]' ''Life of [[Severinus of Noricum|Saint Severinus]]'', providing material for analogies for this process in other regions where primary sources from the period are lacking.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Heather |first=Peter |title=The Fall of the Roman Empire |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0195159547 |location=Oxford |authorlink=Peter Heather}}</ref>
 ==In modern politics==
-In 1919, [[Heinrich Lammasch]], the last prime minister of Imperial Austria, proposed to give the young republic the name of ''Norische Republik'' or ''Noric Republic'',<ref>Anna Maria Drabek, ''Der Österreichbegriff und sein Wandel im Lauf der Geschichte'', in: Marktgemeinde Neuhofen/Ybbs (ed.): ''Ostarrichi Gedenkstätte Neuhofen/Ybbs'', no date (1980), pp. 32–41</ref> because the ancient borders were similar to those of the new state, which – at the time – did not wish to be considered the heir of the Habsburg monarchy, but an independent, neutral and peaceful state.<ref>[http://www.austria-lexikon.at/af/AEIOU/Lammasch%2C_Heinrich Dieter Köberl, ''Zum Wohle Österreichs. Vor 90 Jahren starb Heinrich Lammasch,''] in: ''Die Furche'', 18 February 2010</ref>
+In 1919, [[Heinrich Lammasch]], the last prime minister of Imperial Austria, proposed to give the young republic the name of ''Norische Republik'' or ''Noric Republic'',<ref>Anna Maria Drabek, ''Der Österreichbegriff und sein Wandel im Lauf der Geschichte'', in: Marktgemeinde Neuhofen/Ybbs (ed.): ''Ostarrichi Gedenkstätte Neuhofen/Ybbs'', no date (1980), pp. 32–41</ref> because the ancient borders were similar to those of the new state, which—at the time—did not wish to be considered the heir of the Habsburg monarchy, but an independent, neutral and peaceful state.<ref>[http://www.austria-lexikon.at/af/AEIOU/Lammasch%2C_Heinrich Dieter Köberl, ''Zum Wohle Österreichs. Vor 90 Jahren starb Heinrich Lammasch,''] in: ''Die Furche'', 18 February 2010</ref>
 == Episcopal sees ==
+Episcopal sees of Noricum that are now listed in the ''[[Annuario Pontificio]]'' as [[titular see]]s include:<ref>''Annuario Pontificio 2013'' (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2013 {{ISBN|978-88-209-9070-1}}), "Sedi titolari", pp. 819–1013</ref>
+* [[Aguntum]]
-Episcopal sees of Noricum that are now listed in the ''[[Annuario Pontificio]]'' as [[titular see]]s include:<ref>''Annuario Pontificio 2013'' (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2013 {{ISBN|978-88-209-9070-1}}), "Sedi titolari", pp. 819-1013</ref>
-*[[Lienz|Aguntum]]
+* [[Virunum]]
-*[[Virunum]]
 == See also ==
+* [[List of Roman governors of Noricum]]
-*[[Varisci]]
+* [[Varisci]]
-==References==
+== Citations ==
 {{Reflist|2}}
+== General and cited references ==
-==Bibliography==
-*  Géza Alföldy. [https://books.google.com/books?id=lL89AAAAIAAJ ''Noricum'']. Routledge & K. Paul, 1974
+*[[Géza Alföldy]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=lL89AAAAIAAJ ''Noricum'']. Routledge & K. Paul, 1974
-* Healy, John F., [https://books.google.com/books/about/Mining_and_Metallurgy_in_the_Greek_and_R.html?id=70R2QgAACAAJ Mining and Metallurgy in the Greek and Roman World], Thames and Hudson, 1978.
+*Healy, John F., [https://books.google.com/books/about/Mining_and_Metallurgy_in_the_Greek_and_R.html?id=70R2QgAACAAJ Mining and Metallurgy in the Greek and Roman World], Thames and Hudson, 1978.
+*Strobel, Kartl (2012): "Das Regnum Noricum, die sogenannte Norische Münzprägung und Rom: Frühe Kontakte als Vorspiel von Annexion und Romanisierung – Fiktion oder Realität? Mit einem Appendix zur Noreia-Frage" in "Archaeologia Austriaca" Vol. 96. pp. 11–34
 * {{EB1911|wstitle=Noricum|volume=19|page=748}}
 ==External links==
+{{Commonscat}}
-*{{Commonscatinline}}
-*[http://www.aeiou.at/aeiou.encyclop.n/n840136.htm Noricum] (in German)
+* [http://www.aeiou.at/aeiou.encyclop.n/n840136.htm Noricum] (in German)
-*[https://web.archive.org/web/20071009113141/http://www.wagna.at/flaviasolva/sites/flavia2.html Noricum, its cities and traffic routes in the 2nd century]
+* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071009113141/http://www.wagna.at/flaviasolva/sites/flavia2.html Noricum, its cities and traffic routes in the 2nd century]
-*[http://asciatopo.altervista.org/noricum.html Noricum] at Antonio Sciarretta's Toponymy
 {{Roman provinces AD 117}}
 {{Authority control}}
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 [[Category:Ancient history of Austria]]
 [[Category:Ancient history of Slovenia]]
+[[Category:Austria in the Roman era]]
 [[Category:Historical Celtic peoples]]
-[[Category:Celtic kingdoms]]
+[[Category:Illyricum (Roman province)]]
 [[Category:Provinces of the Roman Empire]]
-[[Category:Roman Illyria]]
-[[Category:Austria in the Roman era]]
 [[Category:Slovenia in the Roman era]]

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