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'''Mambas''' are fast-moving, highly [[Venomous snake|venomous snakes]] of the [[genus]] '''''Dendroaspis''''' (which literally means "tree [[Asp (reptile)|asp]]") in the family [[Elapidae]]. Four [[Neontology|extant]] species are recognised currently; three of those four species are essentially [[Arboreal locomotion|arboreal]] and green in colour, whereas the [[black mamba]], ''Dendroaspis polylepis'', is largely terrestrial and generally brown or grey in colour. All are native to various regions in [[sub-Saharan Africa]] and all are feared throughout their ranges, especially the black mamba. In Africa there are many legends and stories about mambas.<ref name=NG>{{cite web|title= National Geographic (Black Mamba, Dendroaspis polylepis) |date= 10 September 2010|url= https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/reptiles/b/black-mamba/|publisher=[[National Geographic Society]]|access-date=17 October 2020 |quote=African myths exaggerate their capabilities to legendary proportions; Black mambas are shy and will almost always seek to escape when confronted.}}</ref><ref name="Knappert1985">{{cite book|author=Jan Knappert|title=Myths and Legends of Botswana, Lesotho, and Eswatini |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aPAUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA53|date=1 January 1985|publisher=Brill Archive|isbn=90-04-07455-4|pages=53–}}</ref><ref name="Ellis1887">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/southafricanske01elligoog|title=South African Sketches|author=Alfred Burdon Ellis|publisher=Chapman and Hall, Limited|year=1887|author-link=Alfred Burdon Ellis}} also at: [https://archive.org/details/southafricanske00elligoog]</ref>
'''Mambas''' are fast-moving, highly [[Venomous snake|venomous snakes]] of the [[genus]] '''''Dendroaspis''''' (which literally means "tree [[Asp (reptile)|asp]]") in the family [[Elapidae]]. Four [[Neontology|extant]] species are recognised currently; three of those four species are essentially [[Arboreal locomotion|arboreal]] and green in colour, whereas the [[black mamba]], ''Dendroaspis polylepis'', is largely terrestrial and generally brown or grey in colour. All are native to various regions in [[sub-Saharan Africa]] and all are feared throughout their ranges, especially the black mamba. In Africa there are many legends and stories about mambas.<ref name=NG>{{cite web|title= National Geographic (Black Mamba, Dendroaspis polylepis) |date= 10 September 2010|url= https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/reptiles/b/black-mamba/|publisher=[[National Geographic Society]]|access-date=17 October 2020 |quote=African myths exaggerate their capabilities to legendary proportions; Black mambas are shy and will almost always seek to escape when confronted.}}</ref><ref name="Knappert1985">{{cite book|author=Jan Knappert|title=Myths and Legends of Botswana, Lesotho, and Eswatini |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aPAUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA53|date=1 January 1985|publisher=Brill Archive|isbn=90-04-07455-4|pages=53–}}</ref><ref name="Ellis1887">{{cite book |author=Alfred Burdon Ellis |url=https://archive.org/details/southafricanske01elligoog |title=South African Sketches |publisher=Chapman and Hall, Limited |year=1887 |author-link=Alfred Burdon Ellis}} also at: [https://archive.org/details/southafricanske00elligoog]</ref>


==Behaviour==
==Behaviour==
Line 40: Line 40:
Despite their fearsome reputation and often exaggerated notoriety, mamba envenomation occurs far less frequently than some other snakes', for instance the [[puff adder#Venom|puff adder]].<ref name="branch79"/><ref name=VSOTW/> Besides proximity to residences, behaviour of a given species is also a critical aspect when it comes to snakebite morbidities. Mambas are agile, usually fleeing from any confrontation with unambiguous [[threat display]] which allows early recognition of the serpent, avoiding escalation in tension.<ref name="Christensen81"/>
Despite their fearsome reputation and often exaggerated notoriety, mamba envenomation occurs far less frequently than some other snakes', for instance the [[puff adder#Venom|puff adder]].<ref name="branch79"/><ref name=VSOTW/> Besides proximity to residences, behaviour of a given species is also a critical aspect when it comes to snakebite morbidities. Mambas are agile, usually fleeing from any confrontation with unambiguous [[threat display]] which allows early recognition of the serpent, avoiding escalation in tension.<ref name="Christensen81"/>


==Taxonomy==
=== Treatment: ===
Symptoms of a Mamba bite can vary depending on the amount of venom injected, the location of the bite, and the individual's response to the venom. However, some common symptoms of a Green Mamba bite include:
[[Pain]], swelling, and discoloration at the site of the bite
Numbness or tingling in the affected area
Rapid heartbeat and [[breathing]]
Nausea and vomiting
[[Blurred vision]] and dizziness
Difficulty speaking and swallowing
Paralysis of the respiratory muscles, which can lead to respiratory failure and potentially death
If you suspect that you have been bitten by a Mamba, it is essential to seek immediate medical attention. Treatment for a Mamba bite typically involves the administration of antivenom, a specific medication that is designed to neutralize the effects of the venom in the body.
Antivenom is typically administered intravenously and works by binding to the venom and preventing it from causing further damage to the body. The amount of antivenom required will depend on the severity of the symptoms and the amount of venom that was injected.
In addition to antivenom, supportive care may be required to manage the symptoms of a Mamba bite. This can include providing oxygen therapy or mechanical ventilation to support breathing, administering fluids and medications to stabilize blood pressure, and monitoring the patient for signs of respiratory failure or other complications.
It is important to note that while antivenom can be highly effective in treating the symptoms of a [https://ophiology.net/the-green-mamba-a-venomous-beauty/ Green Mamba] bite, it is not a cure-all. Patients who have been bitten by a Green Mamba may require ongoing medical care to manage the long-term effects of the venom, such as muscle weakness or paralysis.

==Taxonomy<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hossain |first=Zobayer |date=14-04-2023 |title=Green Mamba |url=https://ophiology.net/the-green-mamba-a-venomous-beauty/ |url-status=live |website=Ophiology.net}}</ref>==
''Dendroaspis'', is derived from [[Ancient Greek]] ''déndron'' (''δένδρον''), meaning "tree",<ref name=Dendro>{{cite web|title=dendro-|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/dendro-|work=Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition|publisher=HarperCollins Publishers|access-date=4 March 2014}}</ref> and ''aspis'' (''ασπίς''), which is understood to mean "shield",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/aspis|title=Definition of "aspis" - Collins English Dictionary|work=collinsdictionary.com|access-date=15 February 2015}}</ref> but also denotes "cobra" or simply "snake", in particular "snake with hood (shield)". Via [[Latin]] ''aspis'', it is the source of the English word "asp". In ancient texts, ''aspis'' or asp often referred to the [[Egyptian cobra]] (''Naja haje''), in reference to its shield-like hood.<ref name=asp>{{cite web|title=aspis, asp|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/asp|work=Dictionary.com Unabridged|publisher=Random House |access-date=4 March 2014}}</ref> The genus was first described by the German naturalist [[Hermann Schlegel]] in 1848,<ref name="Schlegel">{{ITIS|id=700211|taxon=''Dendroaspis''|access-date=9 December 2013}}</ref> with ''Elaps jamesonii'' as the [[type species]]. It was misspelt as ''Dendraspis'' by Dumeril in 1856, and generally uncorrected by subsequent authors. In 1936, Dutch herpetologist [[Leo Brongersma]] pointed out that the correct spelling was ''Dendroaspis'' but added that the name was invalid as Fitzinger had coined ''Dendraspis'' in 1843 for the king cobra and hence had priority.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brongersma |first1=Leo Daniel |title=Herpetological note XIII |journal=Zoo. Mededeel. |date=1936 |volume=19 |page=135}}</ref> However, in 1962 German herpetologist [[Robert Mertens]] proposed that the 1843 description of ''Dendraspis'' by Fitzinger be suppressed due to its similarity to ''Dendroaspis'', and the confusion it would cause by its use.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mertens |first1=Robert |title=Dendraspis Fitzinger, 1843 (Reptilia, Serpentes); Proposed Suppression under the Plenary Powers. Z.N. (S.) 1500 |journal=Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature |date=1962 |volume=19 |pages=189–190 |url=https://digitalgems.nus.edu.sg/shared/colls/blsea/files/BulZooN_v19_part03-59635af928ac4.pdf}}</ref>
''Dendroaspis'', is derived from [[Ancient Greek]] ''déndron'' (''δένδρον''), meaning "tree",<ref name=Dendro>{{cite web|title=dendro-|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/dendro-|work=Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition|publisher=HarperCollins Publishers|access-date=4 March 2014}}</ref> and ''aspis'' (''ασπίς''), which is understood to mean "shield",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/aspis|title=Definition of "aspis" - Collins English Dictionary|work=collinsdictionary.com|access-date=15 February 2015}}</ref> but also denotes "cobra" or simply "snake", in particular "snake with hood (shield)". Via [[Latin]] ''aspis'', it is the source of the English word "asp". In ancient texts, ''aspis'' or asp often referred to the [[Egyptian cobra]] (''Naja haje''), in reference to its shield-like hood.<ref name=asp>{{cite web|title=aspis, asp|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/asp|work=Dictionary.com Unabridged|publisher=Random House |access-date=4 March 2014}}</ref> The genus was first described by the German naturalist [[Hermann Schlegel]] in 1848,<ref name="Schlegel">{{ITIS|id=700211|taxon=''Dendroaspis''|access-date=9 December 2013}}</ref> with ''Elaps jamesonii'' as the [[type species]]. It was misspelt as ''Dendraspis'' by Dumeril in 1856, and generally uncorrected by subsequent authors. In 1936, Dutch herpetologist [[Leo Brongersma]] pointed out that the correct spelling was ''Dendroaspis'' but added that the name was invalid as Fitzinger had coined ''Dendraspis'' in 1843 for the king cobra and hence had priority.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brongersma |first1=Leo Daniel |title=Herpetological note XIII |journal=Zoo. Mededeel. |date=1936 |volume=19 |page=135}}</ref> However, in 1962 German herpetologist [[Robert Mertens]] proposed that the 1843 description of ''Dendraspis'' by Fitzinger be suppressed due to its similarity to ''Dendroaspis'', and the confusion it would cause by its use.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mertens |first1=Robert |title=Dendraspis Fitzinger, 1843 (Reptilia, Serpentes); Proposed Suppression under the Plenary Powers. Z.N. (S.) 1500 |journal=Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature |date=1962 |volume=19 |pages=189–190 |url=https://digitalgems.nus.edu.sg/shared/colls/blsea/files/BulZooN_v19_part03-59635af928ac4.pdf}}</ref>


Revision as of 13:49, 18 April 2023

For other uses, see Mamba (disambiguation).

Mamba
Black mamba
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Elapidae
Subfamily: Elapinae
Genus: Dendroaspis
Schlegel, 1848[1]
Species
  D. polylepis   
  D. angusticeps
  D. viridis

Mambas are fast-moving, highly venomous snakes of the genus Dendroaspis (which literally means "tree asp") in the family Elapidae. Four extant species are recognised currently; three of those four species are essentially arboreal and green in colour, whereas the black mamba, Dendroaspis polylepis, is largely terrestrial and generally brown or grey in colour. All are native to various regions in sub-Saharan Africa and all are feared throughout their ranges, especially the black mamba. In Africa there are many legends and stories about mambas.[2][3][4]

Behaviour

The three green species of mambas are arboreal, whereas the black mamba is largely terrestrial. The black mamba is one of the largest and most venomous snakes in Africa. All four species are active diurnal hunters, preying on birds, lizards, and small mammals. At nightfall some species, especially the terrestrial black mamba, shelter in a lair. A mamba may retain the same lair for years.

Mambas and cobras are in the same family: the Elapidae. Like cobras, a mamba may rear and form a hood as part of its threat display, but the mamba's hood is narrower and is longer than the broader hood of some species of cobra, such as say, the spectacled cobras of parts of Asia. In their threat display mambas commonly open their mouths; the black mamba's mouth is black within, which renders the threat more conspicuous. Typically also, a rearing mamba tends to lean well forward, instead of standing erect as a cobra does.

Stories of black mambas that chase and attack humans are common, but in fact the snakes generally avoid contact with humans.[5] Most apparent cases of pursuit probably are examples of where witnesses have mistaken the snake's attempt to retreat to its lair when a human happens to be in the way.[6] The black mamba usually uses its speed to escape from threats, and humans actually are their main predators, rather than prey.[2]

Venom

All mambas have medically significant venom, with dendrotoxins, short chain alpha-neurotoxins, cardiotoxins and fasciculins.[7][2][8] There are multiple components in dendrotoxins with different targets:

  • Dendrotoxin 1, which inhibits the K+ channels at the pre and post-synaptic level in the intestinal smooth muscle. It also inhibits Ca2+-sensitive K+ channels from rat skeletal muscle‚ incorporated into planar bilayers (Kd = 90 nM in 50 mM KCl).[9])
  • Dendrotoxin 3, which inhibits acetylcholine M4 receptors.[10]
  • Dendrotoxin 7, commonly referred to as muscarinic toxin 7 (MT7) inhibits acetylcholine M1 receptors.[10]
  • Dendrotoxin K, structurally homologous to Kunitz-type proteinase inhibitors[11] with activity as a selective blocker of voltage-gated potassium channels[12]

Not only does toxicity determine severity of envenomation, but also venom yields, proximity of wounds to the CNS and depth of punctures.[13] All the members are capable of causing rapid onsets of symptoms, with the black mamba being the most feared in the genus for having inflicted the worst bite prognosis as a result of its more terrestrial nature (more possible contact with humans), high defensiveness (tendency to deliver fatal bites instead of dry bites), large size (strike positions), higher average venom yields and potential toxicity (based upon experimental murine LD50).[14][15] A lethality rate of 100% (or "near 100%") for "untreated" black mamba bites has been circulating among various sources,[15] which is probably based upon a single medical record made during 1957 to 1963 when specific antivenom had yet been introduced. Seven out of seven victims succumbed to bites of this species who received non-specific polyvalent antivenom that had no effect on the species' toxins.[5] However, more literatures have to be reviewed for the full picture, especially when the aforementioned record was made in a single district only. Generally speaking, there were 15 out of 35 people who received ineffective treatments passed away. A mamba-specific antivenom was introduced in 1962, followed by a fully polyvalent antivenom in 1971. Over this period, 5 of 38 people bitten by black mambas and given antivenom died.[16]

Despite their fearsome reputation and often exaggerated notoriety, mamba envenomation occurs far less frequently than some other snakes', for instance the puff adder.[15][5] Besides proximity to residences, behaviour of a given species is also a critical aspect when it comes to snakebite morbidities. Mambas are agile, usually fleeing from any confrontation with unambiguous threat display which allows early recognition of the serpent, avoiding escalation in tension.[16]

Treatment:

Symptoms of a Mamba bite can vary depending on the amount of venom injected, the location of the bite, and the individual's response to the venom. However, some common symptoms of a Green Mamba bite include: Pain, swelling, and discoloration at the site of the bite Numbness or tingling in the affected area Rapid heartbeat and breathing Nausea and vomiting Blurred vision and dizziness Difficulty speaking and swallowing Paralysis of the respiratory muscles, which can lead to respiratory failure and potentially death If you suspect that you have been bitten by a Mamba, it is essential to seek immediate medical attention. Treatment for a Mamba bite typically involves the administration of antivenom, a specific medication that is designed to neutralize the effects of the venom in the body. Antivenom is typically administered intravenously and works by binding to the venom and preventing it from causing further damage to the body. The amount of antivenom required will depend on the severity of the symptoms and the amount of venom that was injected. In addition to antivenom, supportive care may be required to manage the symptoms of a Mamba bite. This can include providing oxygen therapy or mechanical ventilation to support breathing, administering fluids and medications to stabilize blood pressure, and monitoring the patient for signs of respiratory failure or other complications. It is important to note that while antivenom can be highly effective in treating the symptoms of a Green Mamba bite, it is not a cure-all. Patients who have been bitten by a Green Mamba may require ongoing medical care to manage the long-term effects of the venom, such as muscle weakness or paralysis.

Taxonomy[17]

Dendroaspis, is derived from Ancient Greek déndron (δένδρον), meaning "tree",[18] and aspis (ασπίς), which is understood to mean "shield",[19] but also denotes "cobra" or simply "snake", in particular "snake with hood (shield)". Via Latin aspis, it is the source of the English word "asp". In ancient texts, aspis or asp often referred to the Egyptian cobra (Naja haje), in reference to its shield-like hood.[20] The genus was first described by the German naturalist Hermann Schlegel in 1848,[21] with Elaps jamesonii as the type species. It was misspelt as Dendraspis by Dumeril in 1856, and generally uncorrected by subsequent authors. In 1936, Dutch herpetologist Leo Brongersma pointed out that the correct spelling was Dendroaspis but added that the name was invalid as Fitzinger had coined Dendraspis in 1843 for the king cobra and hence had priority.[22] However, in 1962 German herpetologist Robert Mertens proposed that the 1843 description of Dendraspis by Fitzinger be suppressed due to its similarity to Dendroaspis, and the confusion it would cause by its use.[23]

Range and characteristics

Black mambas live in the savannas and rocky hills of southern and eastern Africa. They are Africa's longest venomous snake, reaching up to 14 feet in length, although 8.2 feet is more the average. They are also among the fastest snakes in the world, slithering at speeds of up to 12.5 miles per hour.[2][6]

Species[24] Authority[24][a] Image Subsp.*[24] Common name Geographic range
Dendroaspis angusticeps (Smith, 1849) 0 Eastern green mamba Found in Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Eswatini, eastern South Africa
Dendroaspis jamesoniT (Traill, 1843) 2 Jameson's mamba Found in Central Africa in South Sudan, Gabon, Angola, Zambia, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Nigeria, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, Central African Republic, Benin, Togo, Ghana
Dendroaspis polylepis Günther, 1864 0 Black mamba Found in northern Central Africa to eastern Africa and southern Africa in Cameroon, northern Republic of the Congo, Central African Republic, northeast Democratic Republic of the Congo, and southwestern Sudan to Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti, Somalia, Kenya, eastern Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, southwards to Mozambique, Eswatini, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, and Botswana to KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa, and Namibia; then northeasterly through Angola to the southeastern part of the Democratic Republic of Congo
Dendroaspis viridis (Hallowell, 1844) 0 Western green mamba Found only in western Africa in southern Senegal, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, and southwest Nigeria

* Including the nominate subspecies.
T Type species.

Phylogeny

A 2018 analysis of the venom of the mambas, as well as a 2016 genetic analysis, found the following cladogram representative of the relationship between the species.[25][26]

Notes

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dendroaspis.
Wikispecies has information related to Dendroaspis.
  1. ^ A binomial authority in parentheses indicates that the species was originally described in a genus other than Dendroaspis.

References

  1. ^ "Dendroaspis". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 30 October 2012.
  2. ^ a b c d "National Geographic (Black Mamba, Dendroaspis polylepis)". National Geographic Society. 10 September 2010. Retrieved 17 October 2020. African myths exaggerate their capabilities to legendary proportions; Black mambas are shy and will almost always seek to escape when confronted.
  3. ^ Jan Knappert (1 January 1985). Myths and Legends of Botswana, Lesotho, and Eswatini. Brill Archive. pp. 53–. ISBN 90-04-07455-4.
  4. ^ Alfred Burdon Ellis (1887). South African Sketches. Chapman and Hall, Limited. also at: [1]
  5. ^ a b c O'Shea, Mark (2005). VENOMOUS SNAKES OF THE WORLD. multiple places: US and Canada: Princeton University Press; Europe: New Holland (UK) Ltd. pp. 78–79. ISBN 978-0-691-15023-9. ...in common with other snakes they prefer to avoid contact;...Of the three species of green mambas...;...from 1957 to 1963...including all seven black mamba bites - a 100 per cent fatality rate
  6. ^ a b The new encyclopedia of Reptiles (Serpent). Time Book Ltd. 2002.
  7. ^ "Neurotoxins in Snake Venom". Retrieved 2019-12-26.
  8. ^ "Putative cardiotoxicity of the venoms of three mamba species". Wilderness & Environmental Medicine. 7 (2): 115–21. May 1996. doi:10.1580/1080-6032(1996)007[0115:PCOTVO]2.3.CO;2. PMID 11990104. {{cite journal}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help)
  9. ^ "[Potassium channels and epilepsy: evidence that the epileptogenic toxin, dendrotoxin, binds to potassium channel proteins.]". Epilepsy Research Supplement. 4: 263–73. 1991. PMID 1815606. {{cite journal}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help)
  10. ^ a b Rang, H. P. (2003). Pharmacology. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. p. 139. ISBN 0-443-07145-4.
  11. ^ "[Nuclear magnetic resonance solution structure of dendrotoxin K from the venom of Dendroaspis polylepis polylepis.]". Journal of Molecular Biology. 234 (3): 735–50. 5 December 1993. doi:10.1006/jmbi.1993.1623. PMID 8254670. {{cite journal}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help)
  12. ^ "Dendrotoxins: structure-activity relationships and effects on potassium ion channels". Curr. Med. Chem. 11 (23): 3065–72. 2004. doi:10.2174/0929867043363820. PMID 15579000. {{cite journal}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help)
  13. ^ Warrell, DA (1995). Meier, J; White, J (eds.). Handbook of Clinical Toxicology of Animal Venoms and Poisons (1 ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press. pp. 433–492. ISBN 9781351443142.
  14. ^ Séan Thomas & Eugene Griessel – Dec 1999. "LD50 (Archived)". Archived from the original on 1 February 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  15. ^ a b c Branch, W (January 1979). "The venomous snakes of Southern Africa Part 2. Elapidae and Hydrophidae". The Snake. 11 (2): 199–225. Retrieved 1 July 2021.
  16. ^ a b Christensen, P.A. (1981). "Snakebite and the use of antivenom in southern Africa" (PDF). South African Medical Journal. 59 (26): 934–938. PMID 7244896.
  17. ^ Hossain, Zobayer (14-04-2023). "Green Mamba". Ophiology.net. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  18. ^ "dendro-". Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition. HarperCollins Publishers. Retrieved 4 March 2014.
  19. ^ "Definition of "aspis" - Collins English Dictionary". collinsdictionary.com. Retrieved 15 February 2015.
  20. ^ "aspis, asp". Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House. Retrieved 4 March 2014.
  21. ^ "Dendroaspis". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 9 December 2013.
  22. ^ Brongersma, Leo Daniel (1936). "Herpetological note XIII". Zoo. Mededeel. 19: 135.
  23. ^ Mertens, Robert (1962). "Dendraspis Fitzinger, 1843 (Reptilia, Serpentes); Proposed Suppression under the Plenary Powers. Z.N. (S.) 1500" (PDF). Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature. 19: 189–190.
  24. ^ a b c "Dendroaspis". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Archived from the original on 12 March 2009. Retrieved 5 July 2013.
  25. ^ Ainsworth, Stuart; Petras, Daniel; Engmark, Mikael; Süssmuth, Roderich D.; Whiteley, Gareth; Albulescu, Laura-Oana; Kazandjian, Taline D.; Wagstaff, Simon C.; Rowley, Paul; Wüster, Wolfgang; Dorrestein, Pieter C.; Arias, Ana Silvia; Gutiérrez, José M.; Harrison, Robert A.; Casewell, Nicholas R.; Calvete, Juan J. (2018). "The medical threat of mamba envenoming in sub-Saharan Africa revealed by genus-wide analysis of venom composition, toxicity and antivenomics profiling of available antivenoms". Journal of Proteomics. 172: 173–189. doi:10.1016/j.jprot.2017.08.016. PMID 28843532. S2CID 217018550.
  26. ^ Figueroa, A.; McKelvy, A. D.; Grismer, L. L.; Bell, C. D.; Lailvaux, S. P. (2016). "A species-level phylogeny of extant snakes with description of a new colubrid subfamily and genus". PLOS ONE. 11 (9): e0161070. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1161070F. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0161070. PMC 5014348. PMID 27603205.
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